Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Maturation and Reproductive Biology of Female Wild Carp, Cyprinus carpio, in Victoria, Australia

  • Published:
Environmental Biology of Fishes Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The reproduction of carp Cyprinus carpio L. (Family: Cyprinidae), from Victorian waters in Australia, is studied with detailed analysis of gonad maturation, spawning season, fecundity and oocyte diameter. Results show that carp has a high annual fecundity (AF) (0.12–1.54 million oocytes per fish), which is positively correlated with caudal fork-length (L, mm) and total weight (W, kg) but not age. The relationships between length or weight and AF were statistically significant and best described with the simple linear or quadratic regressions. Mean relative fecundity was 0.163 million eggs kg−1 whole weight. Egg size was estimated from oocyte diameter in carp from eight stocks. Egg size was proportional to maternal size but not age. Seasonal trends in gonadosomatic indices, together with the changes in the macroscopic and microscopic condition of ovaries, demonstrated that spawning generally peaks during spring–early summer, but also occurs through until autumn and can even start in late winter at some sites. In Victoria, this species is a multiple spawner with asynchronous oocyte development and a protracted spawning season. Stocks generally contain both females that spawn once, and females that spawn repeatedly, within a spawning season. Implications for management for the control of feral carp stocks are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alikunhi, K.H. 1966. Synopsis of biological data on common carp Cyprinus carpio L. 1758 (Asia and Far East). FAO World Symposium on Warm-water Pond Fish Culture Rome May 1966. FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 31.1. 73 pp.

  • Baelde, P. 1996. Biology and dynamics of the reproduction of blue-eye trevalla, Hyperoglyphe antartica (Centrolophidae), off Tasmania, southern Australia. Fish. Bull. 94: 199-211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagenal, T.B. 1978. Aspects of fish fecundity. pp. 75-101. In: S.D. Gerking (ed.) Methods of Assessment of Ecology of Freshwater Fish Production, Blackwell, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balon, E.K. 1974. Domestication of the Carp Cyprinus carpio L. Royal Ontario Museum Life Sciences Miscellaneous Publication, 34: 1-37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balon, E.K. 1995. Origin and domestication of the wild carp, Cyprinus carpio: From Roman gourmets to the swimming flowers. Aquaculture 129: 3-48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, J.D., J.M. Lyle, C.M. Bulman, K.J. Graham, G.M. Newton & D.C.W. Smith. 1992. Spatial variation in reproduction, and occurrence of non-reproductive adults, in orange roughy, Hoplostethus atlanticus Collett (Trachichthyidae), from southeastern Australia. J. Fish Biol. 40: 107-122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bieniarz, K., P. Epler & W. Popek. 1977. Histological changes in the ovaries of mature female carp in summer time. Investigación Pesquera 41: 95-102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bieniarz, K., P. Epler, L.N. Thuy & E. Kogut. 1979. Changes in the ovaries of adult carp. Aquaculture 17: 45-68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bieniarz, R., P. Epler, B. Breton & L.N. Thuy. 1978. The annual reproductive cycle in adult carp in Poland: Ovarian state and serum gonodotropin level. Annales de Biologie Animale Biochimie Biophysique 18: 917-928.

    Google Scholar 

  • Billard, R. 1995. Carp: Biology and Culture, Springer-Praxis, Chichester, U.K. 342 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, P., C. Green, K.P. Sivakumaran, A. Giles & D. Stoessel. Validating otolith annuli for use in age-determination of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) from Victoria, Australia. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. (in press).

  • Brown, P., K.P. Sivakumaran, D. Stoessel, A. Giles, C. Green & T. Walker. 2003. Carp Population Biology in Victoria. Report No. 56, Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute. Department of Primary Industries. Snobs Creek, Victoria. 202 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brumley, A.R. 1996. Cyprinids. pp. 99-106. In: R. McDowell (ed.) Freshwater Fishes of South-Eastern Australia, Reed Books, Sydney.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cailliet, G.M., M. Love & A.W. Ebeling. 1986. Fishes: A Field and Laboratory Manual on their Structure, Identification, and Natural History, Wadsworth Press, Belmont, CA 194 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coutant, C.C. 1977. Compilation of temperature preference data. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 34: 739-749.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coward, K. & N.R. Bromage. 1998. Histological classification of oocyte growth and the dynamics of ovarian recrudescence in Tilapia zilli. J. Fish Biol. 53: 285-302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crivelli, A.J. 1981. The biology of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio L. in the Camargue, southern France. J. Fish Biol. 18: 271-290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, P.R., I. Hanyu, K. Furukawa & M. Nomura. 1986. Effect of temperature and photoperiod on sexual maturation and spawning of the common carp II. Under conditions of low temperature. Aquaculture 52: 51-58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, K.M., P.I. Dixon & J.H. Harris. 1999. Allozyme and mitochondrial DNA analysis of carp, Cyprinus carpio L., from south-eastern Australia. Mar. Freshw. Res. 50: 253-260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, T.L.O. 1977. Reproductive biology of the freshwater catfish, Tandanus tandanus Mitchell, in the Gwydir River, Australia. I. Structure of the gonads. Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 28: 139-158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, T.L.O. & G.J. West. 1993. Maturation, reproductive seasonality, fecundity and spawning frequency in Lutjanus vittus (Quoy and Gaimard) from the North West Shelf of Australia. Fish. Bull. 91: 224-236.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Vlaming, V.L. 1972. Environmental control of teleost reproductive cycles: A brief review. J. Fish Biol. 4: 141-160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobriyal, A.K., A.K. Bahuguna, C.B. Kotnala, N. Kumar & H.R. Singh. 1990. A case study on the reproductive capacity of common carp, Cyprinus carpio (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from India. Acta Societatis Zoologicae Bohemicae 54: 91-96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubost, N., G. Masson & J.C. Moreteau. 1997. Gonad development and filleting yield of common carp Cyprinus carpio L. reared in ponds in Eastern France. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 13: 15-20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fida, S., M.Y. Qadri & M. Siddiqi. 1988. Influence of environmental conditions on the ovarian cycle and serum chemistry of Cyprinus carpio in the Dal lake, Kashmir (India). Freshw. Biol. 20: 61-67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fouche, C.H., J.F. Vermaak, J.H.J. van Vuren & H.J. Schoonbee. 1985. The female reproductive cycle of the European common carp, Cyprinus carpio, at a Transvaal fish farm: Gonadal morphometric development. S. Afr. J. Zool. 20: 172-176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foucher, R.P. & R.J. Beamish. 1980. Production of nonviable oocytes Pacific hake (Merluccius productus). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37: 41-48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goolish, E.M. & I.R. Adelman. 1984. Effects of ration and temperature on the growth of juvenile Common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). Aquaculture 36: 27-32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gromov, I.A. 1979a. The fecundity of eastern carp, Cyprinus carpio haemopterus. J. Ichthyol. 19: 98-103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gromov, I.A. 1979b. The size composition of oocytes and peculiarities of spawning of the 'eastern carp', Cyprinus carpio haematopterus. Voprosy Ikhtiologii 19: 111-117. (in Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  • Guha, D. & D. Mukherjee. 1991. Seasonal cyclical changes in the gonadal activity of common carp, Cyprinus carpio Linn. Indian J. Fish. 38: 218-223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, S. 1975. The development of carp gonads in warm water aquaria. J. Fish Biol. 7: 775-782.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hontela, A. & N.E. Stacey. 1995. Cyprinidae. pp. 53-78. In: A.D. Munro, A.P. Scott & T.J. Lam (ed.) Reproductive Seasonality in Teleosts: Environmental Influences, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horvath, L. 1985. Egg development (oogenesis) in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). pp. 31-77. In: J.F. Muir & R.J. Roberts (ed.) Recent Advances in Aquaculture, Croom Helm, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huet, M. 1975. Textbook of Fish Culture, Fishing News (Books) Ltd., Farnham, U.K. 436 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hulata, G., R. Moav & G. Wohlfarth. 1974. The relationship of gonads and eggs size to weight and age in the European and Chinese races of the common carp Cyprinus carpio L. J. Fish Biol. 6: 745-758.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, J.R., N.C.H. Lo & R.J.H. Leong. 1985. Batch fecundity in multiple spawning fishes. pp. 67-77. In: R. Lasker (ed.) An Egg Production for Estimating Spawning Biomass of Pelagic Fish: Application to the Northern Anchovy, Engraulis mordax, U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Report.

  • Hunter, J.R. & B.J. Macewicz. 1980. Sexual maturity, batch fecundity, spawning frequency and temporal pattern in the northern anchovy Engraulis mordax, during the 1979 spawning season. California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigation Report 21: 139-149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, J.R. & B.J. Macewicz. 1985a. Measurement of spawning frequency in multiple spawning fishes. pp. 79-94. In: R. Lasker (ed.) An Egg Production for Estimating Spawning Biomass of Pelagic Fish: Application to the Northern Anchovy, Engraulis mordax. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Report.

  • Hunter, J.R. & B.J. Macewicz. 1985b. Rates of atresia in the ovary of captive and wild northern anchovy, Engraulis mordax. Fish. Bull. 83: 119-136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, J.R., B.J. Macewicz, N.C.H. Lo & C.A. Kimbrell. 1992. Fecundity, spawning and maturity of female Dover sole Microstomus pacificu, with an evaluation of assumption and precision. Fish. Bull. 90: 101-128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jankovic, D. 1971. Reproduction of Carp (Cyprinus carpio carpio L.) in Lake Skadar. Arhiv Bioloskih Nauka, Beograd 23: 73-92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlou-Riga, C. & P.S. Economidis. 1996. Ovarian atretic rates and sexual maturity of horse mackerel, Trachurus trachurus (L.), in the Saronikos Gulf (Greece). Fish. Bull. 94: 66-76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlou-Riga, C. & P.S. Economidis. 1997. Spawning frequency and batch fecundity of horse mackerel, Trachurus trachurus (L.), in the Saronikos Gulf (Greece). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 13: 97-104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knuckey, I.A. & K.P. Sivakumaran. 1999. Spawning and Reproductive Characteristics of Blue Warehou in South-East Australian Waters. Final report to the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation. Project No. 96/142. Canberra, Australia. 53 pp.

  • Knuckey, I.A. & K.P. Sivakumaran. 2001. Reproductive characteristics and per-recruit analyses of blue warehou (Seriolella brama): Implications for the South East Fishery of Australia. Mar. Freshw. Res. 52: 575-587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koehn, J., A. Brumley & P. Gehrke. 2000. Managing the Impacts of Carp. Bureau of Rural Sciences, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Canberra, Australia. 249 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lubinski, K.S., A. Van Vooren, J. Janecek & S.D. Jackson. 1986. Common carp in the Upper Mississippi River. Hydrobiologia 136: 141-154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luna, L.G. 1968. Manual of Histological Staining Methods of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 3rd edition, McGraw Hill, New York. 258 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macer, C.T. 1974. The reproductive biology of the horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus (L.) in the North Sea and English Channel. J. Fish Biol. 6: 415-438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, J., G. Pullen & A. Jordan. 1993. Reproductive Biology and Sexual Maturity of Female Jack Mackerel, Trachurus declivis (Jenyns), in Eastern Tasmania Waters. Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 44: 799-809.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matsui, I. 1957. The number of eggs discharged at its primary spawning in relation to number of ovarian eggs in carp. J. Shimonoski College Fish. 7: 147-150.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCrimmon, H. 1968. Carp in Canada. Bull. Fish. Res. Board Can. 165: 1-93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munro, A.D., A.P. Scott & T.J. Lam. 1995. Reproductive Seasonality in Teleosts: Environmental Influences, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. 264 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nikolsky, G. 1963. The Ecology of Fishes, Academic Press, London. 352 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ojanguren, A.F., F.G. Reyes-Gavilan & F. Brana. 1996. Effects of egg size on offspring development and fitness in brown trout, Salmo trutta L. Aquaculture 147: 9-20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parameswaran, S., K.H. Alikunhi & K.K. Sukamaran. 1972. Observations on the maturation, fecundity and breeding of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus. Indian J. Fish. 19: 110-124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pitman, R.W. 1979. Effects of female age and egg size on growth and mortality in rainbow trout. The Progressive Fish-Culturist 41: 202-204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prochelle, O. & H. Campos. 1985. The biology of introduced Carp Cyprinus carpio L. in the River Cayumapu, Valdivia, Chile. Studies on Neotropical Fauna and Environment 20: 65-82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rickey, M.H. 1995. Maturity, spawning, and seasonal movement of arrowtooth flounder, Atheresthes stomias, off Washington. Fish. Bull. 93: 127-138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarig, S. 1966. Synopsis of biological data on common carp Cyprinus carpio L. 1758 (near and east Europe). FAO World Symposium on Warm-water Pond Fish Culture Rome May 1966. FAO Fisheries Synopsis 31.2. 35 pp

  • Schaefer, M.B. 1987. Reproductive biology of black skipjack Euthynnus lineatus, an eastern Pacific tuna. IATTA Bull. 19: 169-260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schrank, S. & C.S. Guy. 2002. Age, growth and gonadal characteristics of adult bighead carp, Hypophthalmichthys nobilis, in the lower Missouri River. Environ. Biol. Fishes 64: 443-450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sivakumaran, K.P. 1991. Studies on the Biology and Population Identification of Rastrelliger kanagurta (Curvier, 1817) (Pisces: Scombridae) from the Coastal Waters of India. Ph.D. Thesis, Annamalai University, Porto-Novo, 250 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Springate, J.R.C. & N.R. Bromage. 1985. Effects of egg size on early growth and survival in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Richardson). Aquaculture 47: 163-172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suzuki, R., M. Yamaguchi & K. Ishikawa. 1977. Differences in growth rate in two races of the common carp at various water temperatures. Bull. Freshw. Fish Res. Lab. 27: 21-26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swee, U.B. & H.R. McCrimmon. 1966. Reproductive biology of the carp, Cyprinus carpio L., in Lake St. Lawrence, Ontario. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 95: 372-380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresher, R.E. 1997. Physical removal as an option for the control of feral carp populations. pp. 58-73. In: J. Roberts & R. Tilzey (ed.) Controlling Carp Exploring the Options for Australia, CSIRO, Albury.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toor, H.S. & K.S. Chauhan. 1975. Studies on the Biology of the Exotic Fish (Cyprinus carpio Linn.) from Punjab Waters. 3. Maturation and Spawning. Agra University J. Res. (Science) 13: 91-98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tweb, A., G. Mustafa & H. Farida. 1989. Study on breeding and early stages in the development of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio (L.). Banglad. J. Agriculture 14: 151-158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vilizzi, L. 1998. Age, growth and cohort composition of 0+ carp in the River Murray, Australia. J. Fish Biol. 52: 997-1013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vilizzi, L., K.F. Walker, T. Jain, D. McGlennon & V. Tsymbal. 1998. Interpretability and precision of annulus counts for calcified structures in carp, Cyprinus carpio L. Archiv fur Hydrobiologie. 143: 121-127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vilizzi, L. & K.F. Walker. 1999. Age and growth of the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, in the River Murray, Australia: Validation, consistency of age interpretation, and growth models. Environ. Biol. Fishes 54: 77-106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vøllestad, L.A. & T. Lillehammer. 2000. Individual variation in early life-history traits in brown trout. Ecol. Freshw. Fish 9: 242-247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, R.A., K. Selman, M.S. Greeley, P.C. Begovac, Jr., Y.W. Lin, R. McPherson & T.R. Petrino. 1987. Current status of oocyte growth. pp. 167-177. In: D.R. Idler, L.W. Crim & J.M. Walsh (ed.) International Symposium on Reproductive Physiology of Fish, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welykochatko, T.D. 1976. Biology of the Carp in Brazil. Ann. Zool., Agra 12: 53-65.

    Google Scholar 

  • West, G. 1990. Methods of assessing ovarian development in fishes: A review. Australian J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 41: 199-222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zonova, A.S. 1973. The connection between egg size and some of the characters of female carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). J. Ichthyol. 15: 679-689.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute, P.O. Box 114, Queenscliff, Victoria, 3225, Australia

    Kathiravelu P. Sivakumaran, Daniel Stoessel & Annie Giles

  2. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute, Private Bag 20, Alexandra, Victoria, 3714, Australia

    Paul Brown

Authors
  1. Kathiravelu P. Sivakumaran
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul Brown
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Daniel Stoessel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Annie Giles
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul Brown.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Sivakumaran, K.P., Brown, P., Stoessel, D. et al. Maturation and Reproductive Biology of Female Wild Carp, Cyprinus carpio, in Victoria, Australia. Environmental Biology of Fishes 68, 321–332 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1027381304091

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1027381304091

Search

Navigation