Abstract
We give a summary of the status of currentresearch in stochastic semiclassical gravity and suggestdirections for further investigations. This theorygeneralizes the semiclassical Einstein equation to an Einstein-Langevin equation with a stochasticsource term arising from the fluctuations of theenergy-momentum tensor of quantum fields. We mentionrecent efforts in applying this theory to the study of black hole fluctuation and backreactionproblems, linear response of hot flat space, andstructure formation in inflationary cosmology. Toexplore the physical meaning and implications of thisstochastic regime in relation to both classical andquantum gravity, we find it useful to take the view thatsemiclassical gravity is mesoscopic physics and thatgeneral relativity is the hydrodynamic limit of certain spacetime quantum substructures. We view theclassical spacetime depicted by general relativity as acollective state and the metric or connection functionsas collective variables. Three basic issues —stochasticity, collectivity, correlations — andthree processes — dissipation, fluctuations,decoherence — underscore the transformation fromquantum microstructure and interaction to the emergenceof classical macrostructure and dynamics. We discuss ways toprobe into the high-energy activity from below and maketwo suggestions: via effective field theory and thecorrelation hierarchy. We discuss how stochastic behavior at low energy in an effective theoryand how correlation noise associated with coarse-grainedhigher correlation functions in an interacting quantumfield could carry nontrivial information about the high-energy sector. Finally, we describeprocesses deemed important at the Planck scale,including tunneling and pair creation, wave scatteringin random geometry, growth of fluctuations and forms, Planck-scale resonance states, and spacetimefoams.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
N. D. Birrell, and P. C. Davis, Quantum Fields in Curved Space (Cambridge University Press, New York, 1982).
Ya. Zel'dovich and A. Starobinsky, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 61, 2161 (1971) [Sov. Phys. JETP 34, 1159 (1971) ]; L. Grishchuk, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 302, 439 (1976); B. L. Hu and L. Parker, Phys. Lett. 63A, 217 (1977); B. L. Hu and L. Parker, Phys. Rev. D 17, 933 (1978); F. V. Fischetti, J. B. Hartle, and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 20, 1757 (1979); J. B. Hartle and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 20, 1772 (1979); 21, 2756 (1980); J. B. Hartle, Phys. Rev. D 23, 2121 (1981); P.A. Anderson, Phys. Rev. D 28, 271 (1983); 29, 615 (1984).
E. Calzetta and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 35, 495 (1987).
J. Schwinger, J. Math. Phys. 2, 407 (1961), P. M. Bakshi and K. T. Mahanthappa, J. Math. Phys. 4, 1, 12 (1963); L. V. Keldysh, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 47, 1515 (1964) [Sov. Phys. JEPT 20, 1018 (1965) ]; G. Zhou, Z. Su, B. Hao, and L. Yu, Phys. Rep. 118, 1 (1985); Z. Su, L. Y. Chen, X. Yu, and K. Chou, Phys. Rev. B 37, 9810 (1988); B. S. DeWitt, In Quantum Concepts in Space and Time, R. Penrose and C. J. Isham, eds. (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986); R. D. Jordan, Phys. Rev. D 33, 44 (1986); E. Calzetta and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 35, 495 (1987); A. Campos and E. Verdaguer, Phys. Rev. D 49, 1861 (1994).
B. L. Hu, Physica A 158, 399 (1989).
C. Kiefer, Class. Quant. Grav. 4, 1369 (1987); J. J. Halliwell, Phys. Rev. D 39, 2912 (1989); T. Padmanabhan, Phys. Rev. D 39, 2924 (1989); B. L. Hu, Quantum and statistical effects in superspace cosmology, in Quantum Mechanics in Curved Space time, J. Audretsch and V. de Sabbata, eds. (Plenum, New York, 1990); E. Calzetta, Class. Quant. Grav. 6, L227 (1989); Phys. Rev. D 43, 2498 (1991); J. P. Paz and S. Sinha, Phys. Rev. D 44, 1038 (1991); 45, 2823 (1992); B. L. Hu, J. P. Paz, and S. Sinha, Minisuperspace as a quantum open system, in Directions in General Relativity, Vol. 1, B. L. Hu, M. P. Ryan, and C. V. Vishveswara, eds. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993).
E. B. Davies, The Quantum Theory of Open Systems (Academic Press, London, 1976); K. Lindenberg and B. J. West, The Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics of Open and Closed Systems (VCH Press, New York, 1990); U. Weiss, Quantum Dissipative Systems (World Scientific, Singapore, 1993).
R. Feynman and F. Vernon, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 24, 118 (1963); R. Feynman and A. Hibbs, Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965); A. O. Caldeira and A. J. Leggett, Physica 121A, 587 (1983); H. Grabert, P. Schramm, and G. L. Ingold, Phys. Rep. 168, 115 (1988); B. L. Hu, J. P. Paz, and Y. Zhang, Phys. Rev. D 45, 2843 (1902); 47, 1576 (1993).
A. O. Caldeira and A. J. Leggett, Physica 121A, 587 (1983); Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 149, 374 (1983); H. Grabert, P. Schramm, and G. L. Ingold, Phys. Rep. 168, 115 (1988); B. L. Hu, J. P. Paz, and Y. Zhang, Phys. Rev. D 45, 2843 (1992); 47, 1576 (1993).
B. L. Hu, Statistical mechanics and quantum cosmology, in Proceedings Second International Workshop on Thermal Fields and Their Applications, H. Ezawa et al., eds. (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1991).
W. H. Zurek, Phys. Rev. D 24, 1516 (1981); 26, 1862 (1982); in Frontiers of Nonequilibrium Statistical Physics, G. T. Moore and M. O. Scully, eds. (Plenum, New York, 1986); Physics Today 44, 36 (1991); E. Joos and H. D. Zeh, Z. Phys. B 59, 223 (1985); A. O. Caldeira and A. J. Leggett, Phys. Rev. A 31, 1059 (1985); W. G. Unruh and W. H. Zurek, Phys. Rev. D 40, 1071 (1989); B. L. Hu, J. P. Paz, and Y. Zhang, Phys. Rev. D 45, 2843 (1992); W. H. Zurek, Prog. Theor. Phys. 89, 281 (1993); D. Giulini et al., Decoherence and the Appearance of a Classical World in Quantum Theory (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1996).
R. B. Griffiths, J. Stat. Phys. 36, 219 (1984); R. Omnés, J. Stat. Phys. 53, 893, 933, 957 (1988); Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 201, 354 (1990); Rev. Mod. Phys. 64, 339 (1992); The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1994); M. Gell-Mann and J. B. Hartle, In Complexity, Entropy and the Physics of Information, W. H. Zurek, ed. (Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1990); Phys. Rev. D 47, 3345 (1993); J. B. Hartle, Quantum mechanics of closed systems, in Directions in General Relativity, Vol. 1, B. L. Hu, M. P. Ryan, and C. V. Vishveswara, eds. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993); H. F. Dowker and J. J. Halliwell, Phys. Rev. D 46, 1580 (1992); T. Brun, Phys. Rev. D 47, 3383 (1993); J. P. Paz and W. H. Zurek, Phys. Rev. D 48, 2728 (1993); J. Twamley, Phys. Rev. D 48, 5730 (1993); F. Dowker and A. Kent, Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 3038 (1995); J. Stat. Phys. 82, 1575 (1996); A. Kent, Phys. Rev. A 54, 4670 (1996); Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 2874 (1997); Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 1982 (1998).
W. Bernard and H. B. Callen, Rev. Mod. Phys. 31, 1017 (1959); R. Kubo, Rep. Prog. Phys. 29, 255 (1966); L. Landau, E. Lifshitz, and L. Pitaevsky, Statistical Physics, Vol. 1 (Pergamon, London, 1980); R. Kubo, M. Toda, and N. Hashitsume, Statistical Physics II (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1985).
R. Kubo, M. Toda, and N. Hashitsume, Statistical Physics, Vol. 2 (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1991), Chapter 4.
M. Gell-Mann and J. B. Hartle, Phys. Rev. D 47, 3345 (1993).
Y. Zhang, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Maryland (1991); B. L. Hu, J. P. Paz, and Y. Zhang, Quantum origin of noise and fluctuation in cosmology, in The Origin of Structure in the Universe, E. Gunzig and P. Nardone, eds. (Plenum Press, New York, 1993), p. 227.
B. L. Hu and A. Matacz, Phys. Rev. D 49, 6612 (1994).
E. Calzetta and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev D 49, 6636 (1994).
Z. Su, L. Y. Chen, X. Yu, and K. Chou, Phys. Rev. B 37, 9810 (1988).
H.F. Dowker and J. J. Halliwell, Phys. Rev. D 46, 1580 (1992); J. P. Paz and W. H. Zurek, Phys. Rev. D 48, 2728 (1993).
E. Calzetta and B. L. Hu, Decoherence of correlation histories, in Directions in General Relativity, Vol. II: Brill Festschrift, B. L. Hu and T. A. Jacobson, eds. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993).
A. Campos and E. Verdaguer, Phys. Rev. D 49, 1861 (1994).
R. Martin and E. Verdaguer, Int. J. Theor. Phys., this issue; gr-qc/9812063, 9811070.
B. L. Hu, In Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Thermal Fields and Its Applications, R. Kobes and G. Kunstatter, eds. (World Scientific, Singapore, 1994).
B. L. Hu and S. Sinha, Phys. Rev. D 51, 1587 (1995).
B. L. Hu and A. Matacz, Phys. Rev. D 51, 1577 (1995).
A. Campos and E. Verdaguer, Phys. Rev. D 53, 1927 (1996).
S. A. Fulling and L. Parker, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 87, 176 (1974).
E. Calzetta, A. Campos, and E. Verdaguer, Phys. Rev. D 56, 2163 (1997).
G. Horowitz, Phys. Rev. D 21, 1445 (1980).
F. C. Lombardo and F. D. Mazzitelli, Phys. Rev. D. 55, 3889 (1997).
F. C. Lombardo and F. D. Mazzitelli, Phys. Rev. D. 58, 024009 (1998); F. C. Lombardo, F. D. Mazzitelli, and J. Russo, Phys. Rev. D. 59,064007 (1999).
P. Johnson and B. L. Hu, Quantum stochastic theory of relativistic particle-field interaction: Effect of strong fields on the trajectory of a particle detector, in preparation.
E. Calzetta and B. L. Hu, Correlations, decoherence, disspation and noise in quantum field theory, in Heat Kernel Techniques and Quantum Gravity, S. Fulling, ed. (Texas A&M Press, College Station, Texas, 1995); hep-th/9501040.
E. Calzetta and B. L. Hu, Nonequilibrium quantum fields: Master effective action, correlation noise and stochastic Boltzmann equation, in preparation.
B. L. Hu, Alpan Raval, and S. Sinha, Notes on black hole fluctuations and backreaction, in Black Holes, Gravitational Radiation and the Universe, B. R. Iyer and B. Bhawal, eds. (Kluwer, Dordtrecht, 1999).
N. G. Phillips, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Maryland (1999).
B. L. Hu, N. Phillips, and A. Raval, Fluctuations of the energy momentum tensor of a quantum field in a black hole spacetime, in preparation.
B. L. Hu, Alpan Raval, and S. Sinha, Backreaction of a radiating quantum black hole and fluctuation-dissipation relation, in preparation.
E. Calzetta and E. Verdaguer, Phys. Rev. D 59, 083513 (1999).
A. Campos and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 58, 125021 (1998).
J. A. Wheeler, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 2, 604 (1957); Geometrodynamics (Academic Press, London, 1962); in Relativity, Groups and Topology, B. and C. DeWitt, eds. (Gordon and Breach, New York, 1964).
L. H. Ford, Phys. Rev. D 51, 1692 (1995).
C.-I. Kuo and L. H. Ford, Phys. Rev. D 47, 4510 (1993).
N. Phillips and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 55, 6123 (1997).
E. Calzetta and B.-L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 52, 6770 (1995); E. Calzetta and S. Gonorazky, Phys. Rev. D 55, 1812 (1997); A. Matacz, Phys. Rev. D 55, 1860 (1997); 56, R1836 (1997).
B. S. DeWitt, Dynamical Theory of Groups and Fields (Gordon and Breach, 1965); Phys. Rep. C 19, 295 (1975); S. Christensen, Phys. Rev. D 14, 2490 (1976).
P. R. Anderson, W. A. Hiscock, and D. A. Samuel, Phys. Rev. Lett. 70, 1739 (1993); Phys. Rev. D 51, 4337 (1995).
D. N. Page, Phys. Rev. D 25, 1499 (1982).
L. H. Ford, Cosmological and black hole horizon fluctuations, gr-qc/9704050.
A. Casher, F. Englert, N. Itzhaki, and R. Parentani, Black hole horizon fluctuations, hepth/ 9606106.
R. D. Sorkin, How wrinkled is the surface of a black hole?, gr-qc/9701056.
C. Barrabès, V. Frolov, and R. Parentani, Metric fluctuation correction to Hawking radiation, gr-qc/9812076.
P. Anderson et al., In Heat Kernei Techniques and Quantum Gravity, S. A. Fulling, ed. (Texas A&M University Press, College Station, Texas, 1995).
J. W. York, Jr., Phys. Rev. D 28, 2929 (1983); 31, 775 (1985); 33, 2092 (1986).
J. M. Bardeen, Phys. Rev. Lett. 46, 382 (1981); P. Hajicek and W. Israel, Phys. Lett. 80A, 9 (1980).
S. Massar, Phys. Rev. D 52, 5857 (1995).
P. Candelas and D. W. Sciama, Phys. Rev. Lett. 38, 1372 (1977)
E. Mottola, Phys. Rev. D 33, 2136 (1986)
A. Campos and B. L. Hu, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 38, 1253 (1999).
D. J. Gross, M. J. Perry, and L. G. Yaffe, Phys. Rev. D 25, 330 (1982).
A. Rebhan, Nucl. Phys. B 351, 706 (1991).
A. P. de Almeida, F. T. Brandt, and J. Frenkel, Phys. Rev. D 49, 4196 (1994); F. T. Brandt and J. Frenkel, Phys. Rev. D 58,085012 (1998), and references therein.
B. L. Hu, In Quantum Classical Correspondence, D. S. Feng and B. L. Hu, eds. (International Press, Boston, 1997).
A. D. Sakharov, Vacuum quantum fluctuations in curved space and the theory of gravitation, Doklady Akad. Nauk SSR 177, 70-71 (1987) [Sov. Phys. Doklady 12, 1040-1041 (1968) ]; see also S. L. Adler, Rev. Mod. Phys. 54, 729 (1982).
B. L. Hu, General relativity as geometro-hydrodynamics, gr-qc/9607070.
E. Calzetta and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 55, 1795 (1997).
B. L. Altshuler, P. A. Lee, and R. A. Webb, eds., Mesoscopic Phenomena in Solids (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1991); B. K.Kramer, ed., Quantum Coherence in Mesoscopic Systems (Plenum Press, New York, 1991); W. P. Kirk and M. A. Reed, eds., Nanostructures and Mesocopic Systems (Academic Press, San Diego, 1992); Y. Imry, Introduction to Mesoscopic Physics (Wiley, New York, 1997).
A. O Caldeira and A. J. Leggett, Ann. Phys. (N.Y) 149, 374 (1993).
S. Weinberg, Quantum Field Theory (Wiley, New York, 1996).
B. L. Hu and Y. Zhang, Coarse-Graining, scaling, and inflation, University of Maryland Preprint 90-186 (1990); B. L. Hu, In Relativity and Gravitation: Classical and Quantum, J. C. D' Olivo et al., eds. (World Scientific, Singapore, 1991).
T. Jacobson, Introduction to black hole microscopy, hep-th/9510026.
W. G. Unruh, Phys. Rev. Lett. 46, 1351 (1981); Phys. Rev. D 51, 2827 (1995); T. Jacobsen, Phys. Rev. D 44, 1731 (1991); 53, 7082 (1994).
B. L. Hu, Fluctuation, dissipation and irreversibility in cosmology, in The Physical Origin of Time-Asymmetry, J. J. Halliwell, J. Perez-Mercader, and W. H. Zurek, eds. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1994).
J. B. Hartle, R. Laflamme, and D. Marolf, Phys. Rev. D 51, 7007 (1995);T. Brun and J. J. Halliwell, Phys. Rev. D 54, 2899 (1996); J. J. Halliwell, Phys. Rev. D 58, 105015 (1998); C. Anastopoulos, gr-qc/9805074; T. Brun and J. B. Hartle, quantphys/9808024.
C. W. Misner, K. S. Thorne, and J. A. Wheeler, Gravitation (Freeman, San Francisco, 1971), Chapter 15.
M. B. Green, J. H. Schwarz, and E. Witten, Superstring Theory (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990); E. Witten, Physics Today 49, 24 (1996); J. Polchinsky, Superstring Theory (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998).
A. Ashtekar, Lectures on Non-Perturbativ e Canonical Gravity (World Scientific, Singapore, 1991); in Knot Theory and Quantum Gravity, J. Baez, ed. (Oxford University, Press, Oxford, 1995); R. Gambini and J. Pullin, Loops, Knots, Gauge Theories and Quantum Gravity (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996); A. Ashtekar, K. Baez, A. Corichi, and K. Krasnov, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80, 904 (1998).
T. Regge, Nuovo Cimento 19, 558 (1961); J. B. Hartle, J. Math. Phys. 26, 804 (1985); 27, 287 (1986); 30, 452 (1989); H. W. Hamber, In Critical Phenomena, Random Systems, Gauge Theories, K. Osterwalder and R. Stora, eds. (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1986); H. W. Hamber, Nucl. Phys. B (Proc. Suppl.) 20, 728 (1991); 25A, 150 (1992); Phys. Rev. D 45, 507 (1992); Nucl. Phys. B 400, 347 (1993); R. M. Williams and P. A. Tucker, Class. Quant. Grav. 9, 1409 (1992); H. W. Hamber and R. M. Williams, Phys. Rev. D 47, 510 (1993); Nucl. Phys. 415, 463 (1994).
J. D. Bekenstein, Phys. Rev. D 7, 1333 (1973); S. W. Hawking, Commun. Math. Phys. 43, 199 (1975).
R. M. Wald, Phys. Rev. D 48, R3427 (1993);T. Jacobson, G. Kang, and R. Myers, Phys. Rev. D 49, 6587 (1994); T. Jacobson, Black hole entropy and induced gravity, gr-qc/9404039; M. Banados, C. Teitelboim, and J. Zanelli, Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 957 (1994); J. D. Bekenstein, Do we understand black hole entropy? in Proceedings Seventh Marcel Grossmann Meeting (Stanford University, 1994), gr-qc/9409015; D. M. Page, Black hole information, in Proceedings 5th Canadian Conference on General Relativity and Relativistic Astrophysics, R. B. Mann and R. G. McLenaghan, eds. (World Scientific, Singapore, 1994), hep-th/9305040; V. P. Frolov, D. V. Fursaev, and A. I. Zelnikov, Black hole entropy: Off-shell vs on-shell, hep-th/9512184; Black hole entropy and/induced gravity, hep-th/9607104.
T. Jacobson, Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 1260 (1995).
L. Susskind and J. Uglam, Phys. Rev. D 50, 2700 (1994);D. Kabat, S. H. Shenker, and M. J. Strassler, Phys. Rev. D 52, 7027 (1995); J. D. Bekenstein and V. F. Mukhanov, Phys. Lett. B 360, 7 (1995).
A. Strominger and C. Vafa, Phys. Lett. B 379, 99 (1996); G. T. Horowitz, The origin of black hole entropy in string theory, in Proceedings of the Pacific Conference on Gravitation and Cosmology (Seoul, Korea, 1996), gr-qc/9604051; G. Horowitz and J. Polchinski, Phys. Rev. D 55, 6189 (1997); J. M. Maldacena, Black holes and D-branes, Nucl. Phys. Proc. Suppl. 61A, 111 (1998).
A. Ashtekhar, In String Gravity and Physics at the Planck Energy Scale, N. Sanchez and A. Zichichi, eds. (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1996).
T. Regge, Nuovo Cimento 19, 558 (1961);J. B. Hartle, J. Math Phys. 26, 804 (1985); 27, 287 (1986); 30, 452 (1989); H. W. Hamber, In Critical Phenomena, Random Systems, Gauge Theories K Osterwalder and R. Stora, eds. (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1986).
G. Ponzano and T. Regge, Semiclassical limit of Racah coefficients, in Spectroscopic and Group Theoretical Methods in Physics, F. Bloch, ed. (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1968); J. Iwasaki, A reformulation of the Ponzano-Regge quantum gravity models in terms of surfaces (1994); J. W. Barrett and T. J. Foxon, Class. Quant. Grav. 11, 543 (1994); J. W. Barrett, Quantum gravity as topological quantum field theory (1995).
D. Nelson et al., eds., Statistical Mechanics of Membranes and Surfaces (World Scientific, Singapore, 1989); D. J. Gross, T. Piran, and S.Weinberg, eds., Two-Dimensional Quantum Gravity and Random Surfaces (World Scientific, Singapore, 1992); F. David, P. Ginsparg, and J. Jinn-Justin, eds. Fluctuating Geometries in Statistical Mechanics and Field Theory (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1996); J. Ambjorn, M. Carfora, and A. Marzuoli, The Geometry of Dynamical Triangulations (Springer, Berlin, 1997).
B. L. Hu, Cosmology as “condensed matter” physics, in Proceedings Third Asia Pacific Physics Conference, Y. W. Chan et al., eds. (World Scientific, Singapore, 1988), Vol. 1, p. 301; gr-qc/9511076.
L. Susskind, J. Math. Phys. 36, 6377 (1995).
G. 'tHooft, Quantization of point particles in 21 1 dimensional gravity and spacetime discreteness, gr-qc/9601014.
T. Appelquist and J. Carazzone, Phys. Rev. D 11, 2856 (1975);S. Weinberg, Phys. Lett. 83B, 339 (1979); B. Ovrut and H. J. Schnitzer, Phys. Rev. D 21, 3369 (1980); 22, 2518 (1980); L. Hall, Nucl. Phys. B 178, 75 (1981); P. Lapage, In From Actions to Answers, T. DeGrand and D. Toussaint, eds. (World Scientific, Singapore, 1990), p. 483; S. Weinberg, The Quantum Theory of Fields, Vol. 1 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995).
J. B. Hartle and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 20, 1772 (1979); 21, 2756 (1980).
J. Schwinger, Phys. Rev. 82, 664 (1951).
E. Mottola, Phys. Rev. D 33, 2136 (1986).
E. Calzetta and B.-L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 37, 2878 (1988).
P. Danielewicz, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 152, 239 (1984);1984); S-P. Li and L. McLerran, Nucl. Phys. B 214, 417 (1983).
L. P. Kadanoff and G. Baym, Quantum Statistical Mechanics (Benjamin, New York, 1962);D. F. Du Bois, In Lectures in Theoretical Physics, Vol 9c, W. Brittin, ed. (Gordon and Breach, New York, 1967); B. Bezzerides and D. F. Du Bois, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 70, 10 (1972).
St. Mrowczynski and P. Danielewicz, Nucl. Phys. B 342, 345 (1990);0); St. Mrowczynski and U. Heinz, Ann. Phys. 229, 1 (1994); P. Henning, Phys. Rep. 253, 235 (1995); Nucl. Phys. A 582, 633 (1995); D. Boyanovsky, I. Lawrie, and D.-S. Lee, Phys. Rev. D 54, 4013 (1996); E. Wang and U. Heinz, Phys. Rev. D 53, 899 (1996).
M. Kac and J. Logan, Fluctuations, in Fluctuation Phenomena, E. W. Montroll and J. L. Lebowitz, eds. (Elsevier, New York, 1979), p. 1.
R. Jackiw, Phys. Rev. D 9, 1686 (1974); J. Iliopoulos, C. Itzykson, and A. Martin, Rev. Mod. Phys. 47, 165 (1975).
H. D. Dahmen and G. Jona-Lasinio, Nuovo Cimento 52A, 807 (1962);C. de Dominicis and P. Martin, J. Math. Phys. 5, 14 (1964); J. M. Cornwall, R. Jackiw, and E. Tomboulis, Phys. Rev. D 10, 2428 (1974); R. E. Norton and J. M. Cornwall, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 91, 106 (1975).
J. B. Hartle and G. Horowitz, Phys. Rev. D 24, 257 (1981).
Y. Kluger, E. Mottola, and J. M. Eisenberg, Phys. Rev. D 58, 125015 (1998).
F. A. Buot, Phys. Rep. 234, 73-174 (1993);S. Datta, Electronic Transport in Mesoscopic Systems (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995); P. Sheng, Introduction to Wave Scattering, Localization and Mesoscopic Phenomena (Academic Press, New York, 1995).
S. Chandrasekhar and B. C. Xanthopoulos, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 408, 175 (1986);410, 311 (1987); A. G. Mirzbekian and G. Vilkovisky, gr-qc/9803006.
G. Stephens, E. Calzetta, B. L. Hu, and S. A. Ramsey, Phys. Rev. D 59, 045009 (1999).
V. A. Rubakov, Nucl. Phys. B 245, 481 (1991).
T. Vachaspati and A. Vilenkin, Phys. Rev. D 37, 898 (1988).
S.A. Ramsey and B. L. Hu, Phys. Rev. D 56, 678 (1997).
A. O. Caldeira and A. J. Leggett, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 149, 374 (1983).
A. Vilenkin, Phys. Rev. D 27, 2848 (1983);30, 509 (1984); Phys. Lett. 117B, 25 (1985); Nucl. Phys. B 226, 527 (1983).
S. W. Hawking, Comm. Math. Phys. 87, 395 (1982).
D. N. Page, Phys. Rev. D 34, 2267 (1986).
P. Ginzparg and M. J. Perry, Nucl. Phys. B 222, 245 (1983).
B. F. Whiting and J. W. York, Jr., Phys. Rev. Lett. 61, 1336 (1988).
R. K. P. Zia, Driven diffusive system, in Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena, Vol. 20, C. Domb and J. Lebowitz, eds. (Academic Press, New York, 1995).
M. Kadar, G. Parisi, and Y. C. Zhang, Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 342 (1986).
B. L. Hu and Y. Zhang, Mod. Phys. Lett. A 8, 3575 (1993); Int. J. Mod. Phys. 10, 4537 (1995).
A. Anderson and J. J. Halliwell, Phys. Rev D 48, 2753 (1993); A. Anastopoulos and J. J. Halliwell, Phys. Rev. D. 51, 6870 (1995).
B. L. Hu and K. Shiokawa, Phys. Rev. D 57, 3474 (1998).
S. W. Hawking, Nucl. Phys. B 144, 349 (1978); S. W. Hawking, D. N. Page, and C. N. Pope, Nucl. Phys. B 170[FS1], 283 (1980); N. P. Warner, Comm. Math. Phys. 86, 419 (1982).
S. W. Hawking, Phys. Rev. D 37, 904 (1988); S. Coleman, Nucl. Phys. B 307, 867 (1988); S. Coleman, J. B. Hartle, T. Piran, and S. Weinberg, eds., Quantum Cosmology and Baby Universes (World Scientific, Singapore, 1991)
S. W. Hawking, Phys. Rev. D 53, 3099 (1996).
D. Garfunkle, S. B. Giddings, and A. Stominger, Phys. Rev. D 49, 958 (1994);F. Dowker et al., Phys. Rev. D 50, 2662 (1994); S. W. Hawking, G. T. Horowitz, and S. F. Ross, Phys. Rev. D 51, 4302 (1995); R. Busso and S. W. Hawking, Phys. Rev. 52, 5659 (1995); 54, 6312 (1996).
S. Carlip, Phys. Rev. Lett. 79, 4071 (1997); Class. Quant. Grav. 15, 2629 (1998); L. J. Garay, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80, 2508 (1998); Phys. Rev. D 58, 124015 (1998).
J. Ellis, N. E. Mavromatos, and D. V. Nanopoulos, Quantum decoherence in a D-foam background, Mod. Phys. Lett A. (1997).
K. Huang, Statistical Mechanics, 2nd ed. (Wiley, New York, 1987).
A. I. Akhiezer and S. V. Peletminsky, Methods of Statistical Physics (Pergamon, London, 1981).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hu, B.L. Stochastic Gravity. International Journal of Theoretical Physics 38, 2987–3037 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026664317157
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026664317157