References
Gale EA. The discovery of type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 2001;50:217–226.
Atkinson MA, Eisenbarth GS. Type 1 diabetes: New perspectives on disease pathogenesis and treatment. Lancet 2001;358:221–229.
Wucherpfennig KW, Eisenbarth GS. Type 1 diabetes. Nat Immunol 2001;2:767–768.
Karvonen M, Viik-Kajander M, Moltchanova E, Libman I, LaPorte R, Tuomilehto J. Incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes worldwide. Diabetes Mondiale (DiaMond) Project Group. Diabetes Care 2000;23:1516–1526.
Bodansky HJ, Staines A, Stephenson C, Haigh D, Cartwright R. Evidence for an environmental effect in the aetiology of insulin dependent diabetes in a transmigratory population. BMJ 1992;304:1020–1022.
Raymond NT, Jones JR, Swift PG, Davies MJ, Lawrence IG, McNally PG, Burden ML, Gregory R, Botha JL, Burden AC. Comparative incidence of Type I diabetes in children aged under 15 years from South Asian and White or Other ethnic backgrounds in Leicestershire, UK, 1989 to 1998. Diabetologia 2001;44:B32–B36.
Redondo MJ, Yu L, Hawa M, Mackenzie T, Pyke DA, Eisenbarth GS, Leslie RD. Heterogeneity of type I diabetes: Analysis of monozygotic twins in Great Britain and the United States. Diabetologia 2001;44:354–362.
Bingley PJ, Gale EA. Rising incidence ofIDDMin Europe. Diabetes Care 1989;12:289–295.
Gale EA. The rise of childhood type 1 diabetes in the 20th century. Diabetes 2002;51:3353–3361.
Patterson CC, Dahlquist G, Soltesz G, Green A. Is childhood-onset Type I diabetes a wealth-related disease? An ecological analysis of European incidence rates. Diabetologia 2001;44:B9–B16.
Jun HS, Yoon JW. The role of viruses in type I diabetes: Two distinct cellular and molecular pathogenic mechanisms of virus-induced diabetes in animals. Diabetologia 2001;44:271–285.
Like AA, Rossini AA. Streptozotocin-induced pancreatic insulitis: New model of diabetes mellitus. Science 1976;193:415–417.
Rorsman P. The pancreatic beta-cell as a fuel sensor: An electrophysiologist's viewpoint. Diabetologia 1997;40:487–495.
Schuit F, Flamez D, De Vos A, Pipeleers D. Glucose-regulated gene expression maintaining the glucose-responsive state of beta-cells. Diabetes 2002;51:S326–S332.
Flamez D, Berger V, Kruhoffer M, Orntoft T, Pipeleers D, Schuit FC. Critical role for cataplerosis via citrate in glucose-regulated insulin release. Diabetes 2002;51:2018–2024.
Schuit F, De Vos A, Farfari S, Moens K, Pipeleers D, Brun T, Prentki M. Metabolic fate of glucose in purified islet cells. Glucoseregulated anaplerosis in beta cells. J Biol Chem 1997;272:18572–18579.
Farfari S, Schulz V, Corkey B, Prentki M. Glucose-regulated anaplerosis and cataplerosis in pancreatic beta-cells: Possible implication of a pyruvate/citrate shuttle in insulin secretion. Diabetes 2000;49:718–726.
Burkart V, Wang ZQ, Radons J, Heller B, Herceg Z, Stingl L, Wagner EF, Kolb H. Mice lacking the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase gene are resistant to pancreatic beta-cell destruction and diabetes development induced by streptozocin. Nat Med 1999;5:314–319.
Lenzen S, Drinkgern J, Tiedge M. Low antioxidant enzyme gene expression in pancreatic islets compared with various other mouse tissues. Free Radic Biol Med 1996;20:463–466.
Grankvist K, Marklund SL, Taljedal IB. CuZn-superoxide dismutase, Mn-superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase in pancreatic islets and other tissues in the mouse. Biochem J 1981;199:393–398.
Tiedge M, Lortz S, Drinkgern J, Lenzen S. Relation between antioxidant enzyme gene expression and antioxidative defense status of insulin-producing cells. Diabetes 1997;46:1733–1742.
Gerbitz KD, Gempel K, Brdiczka D. Mitochondria and diabetes. Genetic, biochemical, and clinical implications of the cellular energy circuit. Diabetes 1996;45:113–126.
Helgason T, Jonasson MR. Evidence for a food additive as a cause of ketosis-prone diabetes. Lancet 1981;2:716–720.
Helgason T, Ewen SW, Ross IS, Stowers JM. Diabetes produced in mice by smoked/cured mutton. Lancet 1982;2:1017–1022.
Dahlquist GG, Blom LG, Persson LA, Sandstrom AI, Wall SG. Dietary factors and the risk of developing insulin dependent diabetes in childhood. BMJ 1990;300:1302–1306.
Virtanen SM, Jaakola L, Rasanen L, Ylonen K, Aro A, Lounamaa R, Akerblom HK, Tuomilehto J, Group TCDiFDS. Nitrate and nitrite intake and the risk for type I diabetes in Finnish children. Diabet Med 1994;11:656–662.
Kostraba JN, Gay EC, Rewers M, Hamman RF. Nitrate levels in community drinking water and risk of IDDM. Diabetes Care 1992;15:1505–1508.
Parslow RC, Mckinney PA, Law GR, Staines A, Williams R, Bodansky HJ. Incidence of childhood diabetes mellitus inYorkshire, northern England, is associated with nitrate in drinking water–an ecological analysis. Diabetologia 1997;40:550–556.
Karam JH, Lewitt PA, Young CW, Nowlain RE, Frankel BJ, Fujiya H, Freedman ZR, Grodsky GM. Insulinopenic diabetes after rodenticide (Vacor) ingestion: A unique model of acquired diabetes in man. Diabetes 1980;29:971–978.
Taniguchi H, Yamashiro Y, Chung MY, Hara Y, Ishihara K, Ejiri K, Baba S. Vacor inhibits insulin release from islets in vitro.J Endocrinol Invest 1989;12:273–275.
Kenney RM, Michaels IA, Flomenbaum NE, Yu GS. Poisoning with N-3-pyridylmethyl-N-p-nitrophenylurea (Vacor). Immunoperoxidase demonstration of beta-cell destruction. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1981;105:367–370.
Degli Esposti M, Ngo A, Myers MA. Inhibition of mitochondrial complex I may account for IDDM induced by intoxication with the rodenticide Vacor. Diabetes 1996;45:1531–1534.
Spencer PS, Ludolph AC, Kisby GE. Neurologic diseases associated with use of plant components with toxic potential. Environ Res 1993;62:106–113.
Eizirik DL, Kisby GE. Cycad toxin-induced damage of rodent and human pancreatic beta-cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1995;50:355–365.
Morgan RW, Hoffmann GR. Cycasin and its mutagenic metabolites. Mutat Res 1983;114:19–58.
Elsner M, Guldbakke B, Tiedge M, Munday R, Lenzen S. Relative importance of transport and alkylation for pancreatic beta-cell toxicity of streptozotocin. Diabetologia 2000;43:1528–1533.
Pieper AA, Brat DJ, Krug DK, Watkins CC, Gupta A, Blackshaw S, Verma A, Wang ZQ, Snyder SH. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerasedeficient mice are protected from streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:3059–3064.
Masutani M, Suzuki H, Kamada N, Watanabe M, Ueda O, Nozaki T, Jishage K, Watanabe T, Sugimoto T, Nakagama H, Ochiya T, Sugimura T. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase gene disruption conferred mice resistant to streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:2301–2304.
Shaw Dunn J, Sheehan HL, McLetchie NGB. Necrosis of the islets of Langerhans produced experimentally. Lancet 1943;244:484–487.
Elsner M, Tiedge M, Guldbakke B, Munday R, Lenzen S. Importance of the GLUT2 glucose transporter for pancreatic beta cell toxicity of alloxan. Diabetologia 2002;45:1542–1549.
Winterbourn CC, Munday R. Glutathione-mediated redox cycling of alloxan. Mechanisms of superoxide dismutase inhibition and of metal-catalyzed OH formation. Biochemical Pharmacology 1989;38:271–277.
Drose S, Altendorf K. Bafilomycins and concanamycins as inhibitors of V-ATPases and P-ATPases. J Exp Biol 1997;200:1–8.
Myers MA, Mackay IR, Rowley MJ, Zimmet PZ. Dietary microbial toxins and type 1 diabetes–a new meaning for seed and soil. Diabetologia 2001;44:1199–1200.
Hettiarachchi K, Myers MA. In utero exposure to the dietary toxin bafilomycin promotes autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice. Manuscript in preparation.
Natsume M, Yamada A, Tashiro N, Abe H. Differential production of the phytotoxins thaxtomin A and concanamycins A and B by potato common scab-causing Streptomyces spp. Annals of the Phytopathological Society of Japan 1998;64:202–204.
Natsume M, Ryu R, Abe H. Production of phytotoxins, concanamycins A and B by Streptomyces spp. causing potato scab. Annals of the Phytopathological Society of Japan 1996;62:411–413.
Myers MA, Hettiarachchi K, Ludeman JL, Wilson AJ, Wilson CR, Zimmet PZ. Dietary microbial toxins and Type 1 diabetes. Ann NY Acad Sci 2003, in press.
Loria R, Bukhalid RA, Fry BA, King RR. Plant pathogenicity in the genus streptomyces. Plant Disease 1997;81:836–846.
Todd JA, Bell JI, McDevitt HO. HLA-DQ beta gene contributes to susceptibility and resistance to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Nature 1987;329:599–604.
Pugliese A, Zeller M, Fernandez A, Jr, Zalcberg LJ, Bartlett RJ, Ricordi C, Pietropaolo M, Eisenbarth GS, Bennett ST, Patel DD. The insulin gene is transcribed in the human thymus and transcription levels correlated with allelic variation at the INS VNTR-IDDM2 susceptibility locus for type 1 diabetes. Nat Genet 1997;15:293–297.
Vafiadis P, Bennett ST, Todd JA, Nadeau J, Grabs R, Goodyer CG, Wickramasinghe S, Colle E, Polychronakos C. Insulin expression in human thymus is modulated by INS VNTR alleles at the IDDM2 locus. Nat Genet 1997;15:289–292.
Morahan G, Huang D, Ymer SI, Cancilla MR, Stephen K, Dabadghao P, Werther G, Tait BD, Harrison LC, Colman PG. Linkage disequilibrium of a type 1 diabetes susceptibility locus with a regulatory IL12B allele. Nat Genet 2001;27:218–221.
Nistico L, Buzzetti R, Pritchard LE, Van der Auwera B, Giovannini C, Bosi E, Larrad MT, Rios MS, Chow CC, Cockram CS, Jacobs K, Mijovic C, Bain SC, Barnett AH, Vandewalle CL, Schuit F, Gorus FK, Tosi R, Pozzilli P, Todd JA. The CTLA-4 gene region of chromosome 2q33 is linked to, and associated with, type 1 diabetes. Belgian Diabetes Registry. Hum Mol Genet 1996;5:1075–1080.
Yoon JW, Jun HS, Santamaria P. Cellular and molecular mechanisms for the initiation and progression of beta cell destruction resulting from the collaboration between macrophages and T cells. Autoimmunity 1998;27:109–122.
Kiesel U, Kolb H. Low-dose streptozotocin-induced autoimmune diabetes is under the genetic control of the major histocompatibility complex in mice. Diabetologia 1982;23:69–71.
Paik SG, Fleischer N, Shin SI. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus induced by subdiabetogenic doses of streptozotocin: Obligatory role of cell-mediated autoimmune processes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1980;77:6129–6133.
Elliott JI, Dewchand H, Altmann DM. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes in mice lacking alphabeta T cells. Clin Exp Immunol 1997;109:116–120.
Herold KC, Bloch TN, Vezys V, Sun Q. Diabetes induced with low doses of streptozotocin is mediated byVbeta 8.2+T-cells. Diabetes 1995;44:354–359.
Herold KC, Bluestone JA, Montag AG, Parihar A, Wiegner A, Gress RE, Hirsch R. Prevention of autoimmune diabetes with nonactivating anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody. Diabetes 1992;41:385–391.
Kim YT, Steinberg C. Immunological studies on the induction of diabetes in experimental animals. Cellular basis for the induction of diabetes by streptozotocin. Diabetes 1984;33:771–777.
Weide LG, Lacy PE. Low-dose streptozocin-induced autoimmune diabetes in islet transplantation model. Diabetes 1991;40:1157–1162.
Horwitz MS, La Cava A, Fine C, Rodriguez E, Ilic A, Sarvetnick N. Pancreatic expression of interferon-gamma protects mice from lethal coxsackievirus B3 infection and subsequent myocarditis. Nat Med 2000;6:693–697.
Rose NR, Mackay IR. Molecular mimicry: A critical look at exemplary instances in human diseases. Cell Mol Life Sci 2000;57:542–551.
Hoglund P, Mintern J, Waltzinger C, Heath W, Benoist C, Mathis D. Initiation of autoimmune diabetes by developmentally regulated presentation of islet cell antigens in the pancreatic lymph nodes. J Exp Med 1999;189:331–339.
Gagnerault MC, Luan JJ, Lotton C, Lepault F. Pancreatic lymph nodes are required for priming of beta cell reactive T cells in NOD mice. J Exp Med 2002;196:369–377.
Scaglia L, Cahill CJ, Finegood DT, Bonner-Weir S. Apoptosis participates in the remodeling of the endocrine pancreas in the neonatal rat. Endocrinology 1997;138:1736–1741.
Trudeau JD, Dutz JP, Arany E, Hill DJ, Fieldus WE, Finegood DT. Neonatal beta-cell apoptosis: A trigger for autoimmune diabetes? Diabetes 2000;49:1–7.
Rovere P, Vallinoto C, Bondanza A, Crosti MC, Rescigno M, Ricciardi-Castagnoli P, Rugarli C, Manfredi AA. Bystander apoptosis triggers dendritic cell maturation and antigen-presenting function. J Immunol 1998;161:4467–4471.
Green EA, Flavell RA. The initiation of autoimmune diabetes. Curr Opin Immunol 1999;11:663–669.
O'Brien BA, Fieldus WE, Field CJ, Finegood DT. Clearance of apoptotic beta-cells is reduced in neonatal autoimmune diabetesprone rats. Cell Death Differ 2002;9:457–464.
O'Brien BA, Huang Y, Geng X, Dutz JP, Finegood DT. Phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by macrophages from NOD mice is reduced. Diabetes 2002;51:2481–2488.
Zhang Y, O'Brien B, Trudeau J, Tan R, Santamaria P, Dutz JP. In situ beta cell death promotes priming of diabetogenic CD8 Tlymphocytes. J Immunol 2002;168:1466–1472.
Hugues S, Mougneau E, Ferlin W, Jeske D, Hofman P, Homann D, Beaudoin L, Schrike C, Von Herrath M, Lehuen A, Glaichenhaus N. Tolerance to islet antigens and prevention from diabetes induced by limited apoptosis of pancreatic beta cells. Immunity 2002;16:169–181.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Myers, M.A., Mackay, I.R. & Zimmet, P.Z. Toxic Type 1 Diabetes. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 4, 225–231 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025196127517
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025196127517