Abstract
Self-infiltration, or false self-ascription of external goals or ideas, is investigated using an implicit experimental procedure (J. Kuhl & M. Kazén, 1994). Based on personality systems interactions (PSI) theory (J. Kuhl, 2000), it was expected that state-oriented participants exposed to task-alienating conditions, under external pressure, or experiencing negative mood would show self-infiltration, because under those conditions access to their self-system is impaired, including integrated representations of personal preferences. A new prediction is that self-infiltration should occur in processing low-attractive goals or ideas and not in processing high-attractive ones, because the latter are internalized through integration or identification with the self. Three experiments yielded results consistent with this hypothesis: State-oriented participants showed self-infiltration with low-attractive items, whereas action-oriented did not show this pattern. A mechanism is proposed that helps people to resist external influences in the formation of personal goals and ideas: Self-compatibility checking. This mechanism is inferred on the basis of long latencies in counter-preferential decisions related to previous self-choices (autonoetic access). Only action-oriented participants gave systematic evidence of autonoetic access.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Aitken, K. J., & Trevarthen, C. (1997). Self-other organization in human psychological development. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 653–677.
Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 70(9) (Whole No. 416).
Baumann, N., & Kuhl, J. (2003). Self-infiltration: Confusing assigned tasks as self-selected in memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 487–497.
Beckmann, J. (1997). Alienation and conformity, Unpublished manuscript. Max-Planck-Institute for Psychological Research, Munich, Germany.
Beres, D., & Joseph, E. D. (1970). The concept of mental representation in psychoanalysis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 51, 1–9.
Bock, M., & Klinger, E. (1986). Interaction of emotion and cognition in word recall. Psychological Research, 48, 99–106.
Brickenkamp, R. (1962). Test d-2: Aufmerksamkeits-Belastungs-Test [The d2 test: A concentration test]. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
Brunstein, J. C., & Olbrich, E. (1985). Personal helplessness and action control: An analysis of achievement-related cognitions, self-assessments, and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1540–1551.
Ciupka, B. (1991). Selbstregulation und Entscheidungen von Führungskräften [Self-regulation and decision-making in a group of managers], Unpublished thesis. University of Osnabrück.
Cohen, R. L. (1981). On the generality of some memory laws. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 22, 267–281.
Cramerus, M. (1990). Conflict, defense, and integration of self-representations. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 20, 177–190.
Deci, E. L., Eghrari, H., Patrick, B. C., & Leone, D. R. (1994). Facilitating internalization: The self-determination theory perspective. Journal of Personality, 62, 119–142.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.
Dieffendorf, J. M., Hall, R. J., Lord R. G., & Strean, M. L. (2000). Action-state orientation: Construct validity of a revised measure and its relationship to work-related variables. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 250–263.
Elliot, A. J., & Sheldon, K. M. (1998). Avoidance personal goals and the personality-illness relationship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1282–1299.
Ferenczi, S. (1926). The problem of acceptance of unpleasant ideas: Advances in knowledge of the sense of reality. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 7, 312–323.
Fuhrmann, A., & Kuhl, J. (1998). Maintaining a healthy diet: Effects of personality and self-reward versus self-punishment on commitment to and enactment of self-chosen and assigned goals. Psychology and Health, 13, 651–686.
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1996). The volitional benefits of planning. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 287–312). New York: Guilford Press.
Gotlib, I. H., Roberts, J. E., & Gilboa, E. (1996). Cognitive interference in depression. In I. G. Sarason, G. R. Pierce, & B. R. Sarason (Eds.), Cognitive interference: Theories, methods, and findings (pp. 347–377). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gray, J. A. (1987). The psychology of fear and stress (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gray, J. A. (1990). Brain systems that mediate both emotion and cognition. Motivation and Emotion, 4, 269–288.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4–27.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in social cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.
Guevara, M. L. (1994). Alienation und Selbstkontrolle: Das Ignorieren eigener Gefühle. [Alienation and self-control: Ignoring one's preferences] Bern: Lang.
Heckhausen, H., & Kuhl, J. (1985). From wishes to action: The dead ends and short cuts on the long way to action. In M. Frese & J. Sabini (Eds.), Goal directed behavior: The concept of action in psychology (pp. 134–159). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Johnson, M. K. (1988). Reality monitoring: An experimental phenomenological approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117(4), 390–394.
Johnson, M. K., & Raye, C. L. (1981). Reality monitoring. Psychological Review, 88(1), 67–85.
Klinger, E. (1977). Meaning and void: Inner experiences and the incentives in people's lives. Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press.
Klinger, E. (1996). Emotional influences on cognitive processing, with implications for theories of both. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 168–189). New York: Guilford Press.
Koestner, R., Losier, G. F., Vallerand, R. J., & Carducci, D. (1996). Identified and introjected forms of political internalization: Extending self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1025–1036.
Koole, S. L., Smeets, K., van Knippenberg, A., & Dijksterhuis, A. (1999). The cessation of rumination through self-affirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77, 111–125.
Kuhl, J. (1981). Motivational and functional helplessness: The moderating effect of state versus action orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 155–170.
Kuhl, J. (1982). Handlungskontrolle als metakognitiver Vermittler zwischen Intention und Handeln: Freizeitaktivitäten bei Hauptschülern [Action control as a metacognitive mediator between intention and action: Leisure-time activities of high-school students]. Zeitschrift für Entwickungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 14, 141–148.
Kuhl, J. (1985). Volitional mediators of cognition-behavior consistency: Self-regulatory processes and action versus state orientations. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control: From cognition to behavior (pp. 101–128). Berlin: Springer.
Kuhl, J. (1994)a. A theory of action and state orientations. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (pp. 9–46). Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
Kuhl, J. (1994)b. Action and state orientation: Psychometric properties of the action control scales (ACS-90). In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (pp. 47–59). Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
Kuhl, J. (2000). A functional-design approach to motivation and self-regulation: The dynamics of personality system interactions. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Self-regulation: Directions and challenges for future research (pp. 111–169). New York: Academic Press.
Kuhl, J. (2001). Motivation und Persönlichkeit: Interaktionen psychischer Systeme [Personality and motivation: Architectures of mood and mind]. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
Kuhl, J., & Baumann, N. (2000). Self-regulation and rumination: Negative affect and impaired self-accessibility. In W. Perrig & A. Grob (Eds.), Control of human behavior, mental processes, and consciousness: Essays in honour of the 60th birthday of August Flammer (pp. 283–305). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kuhl, J., & Beckmann, J. (Eds.) (1994a). Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
Kuhl, J., & Beckmann, J. (1994b). Alienation: Ignoring one's preferences. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (pp. 375–390) Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
Kuhl, J., & Helle, P. (1986). Motivational and volitional determinants of depression: The degenerated intention hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 247–251.
Kuhl, J., & Kazén, M. (1994). Self-discrimination and memory: State orientation and false self-ascription of assigned activities. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(6), 1103–1115.
Kuhl, J., & Kazén-Saad, M. (1988). A motivational approach to volition: Activation and deactivation of memory representations related to uncompleted intentions. In V. Hamilton, G. H. Bower, & N. H. Frijda (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation (pp. 63–85). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
Kuhl, J., & Weiss, M. (1994). Performance deficits following uncontrollable failure: Impaired action control or global attributions and generalized expectancy deficits? In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (pp. 317–328). Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
Laing, R. D. (1971). Self and others. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books.
Menec, V. H. (1995). Volition and motivation: The effect of distracting learning conditions on students differing in action control and perceived control. Doctoral dissertation. University of Manitoba, Canada.
Mueller, J. H., Ross, M. J., & Heesacker, M. (1984). Distinguishing me from thee. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22, 79–82.
Oettingen, G. (1996). Positive fantasies and motivation. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 236–259). New York: Guilford Press.
Olejnik, S., & Hess, B. (1997). Top ten reasons why most Omnibus ANOVA F-Tests should be abandoned. The Journal of Vocational Education Research, 22, 219–232.
Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1985). Contrast analysis: Focused comparisons in the analysis of variance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ryan, R. M., Kuhl, J., & Deci, E. L. (1997). Nature and autonomy: Organizational view of social and neurobiological aspects of self-regulation in behavior and development. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 701–728.
Sheldon, K. M., Houser-Marko, L., & Arndt, J. (submitted). On the inside and the outside of the self: Extrinsic goals, mortality salience, and the internalization process. University of Missouri-Columbia.
Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (1995). Coherence and congruence: Two aspects of personality integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 531–543.
Snodgrass, J. G., & Thompson, R. L. (Eds.). (1997). The self across psychology: Self-recognition, self-awareness, and the self concept. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 818.
Stephen, K. (1934). Introjection and projection: Guilt and rage. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 14, 316–331.
Tulving, E. (1985). How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist, 40, 385–398.
Vygotzky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.
Wheeler, M. A., Stuss, D. T., & Tulving, E. (1997). Toward a theory of episodic memory: The frontal lobes and autonoetic consciousness. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 331–354.
Winer, B. J. (1971). Statistical principles in experimental design (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kazén, M., Baumann, N. & Kuhl, J. Self-Infiltration vs. Self-Compatibility Checking in Dealing with Unattractive Tasks: The Moderating Influence of State vs. Action Orientation. Motivation and Emotion 27, 157–197 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025043530799
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025043530799