Abstract
This paper presents an interpretive summary of the progress that has been made in the study of motivation, especially as this work relates to the area of education. Motivation research has “come of age” with theoretical frameworks rooted in an established body of findings, and with the development of core methodologies for pursuing further knowledge. It has begun to provide a firm base for guiding educational practice. Current work is clearly in accord with mainstream psychology in that cognitive models of motivation are the predominant guides for research. Future work is likely to focus increasingly on how the meaning construction process affects engagement in tasks. Researchers should consider a wider array of research procedures and give greater attention to understanding motivation as it occurs in natural settings, especially as educational interventions are attempted. A serious deficiency in the motivation literature is that relatively little attention has been given to differences related to sociocultural backgrounds.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Alschuler, A. S. (1973). Developing Achievement Motivation in Adolescents: Education for Human Growth, Educational Technology, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in Context, Westview Press/Harper-Collins, Boulder, CO.
Amabile, T. M., and Hennessey, B. A. (1992). The motivation for creativity in children. In Boggiano, A. K., and Pittman, T. S. (eds.), Achievement and Motivation: A Social-Developmental Perspective, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 54–74.
Ames, C. A. (1990). Motivation: What teachers need to know. Teach. Coll. Rec. 91: 409–421.
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. J. Educ. Psychol. 84: 261–271.
Ames, C., and Ames, R. (1984). Systems of student and teacher motivation: Toward a qualitative definition. J. Educ. Psychol. 76: 535–556.
Ames, C., and Ames, R. (eds.) (1989). Research on Motivation in Education: Goals and Cognitions. Academic Press, New York.
Ames, C., and Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students' learning strategies and motivation processes. J. Educ. Psychol. 80: 260–267.
Anderman, E., and Maehr, M. L. (1994). Motivation and schooling in the middle grades. Rev. Educ. Res. 64: 287–309.
Arroyo, C. G., and Zigler, E. (1995). Racial identity, academic achievement, and the psychological well-being of economically disadvantaged adolescents. J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 69: 903–914.
Arunkumar, R., and Maehr, M. L. (1997). School Experiences and Self-Esteem: Perplexing and Disturbing Differences Between Afro-American and Euro-American Adolescents. Unpublished research report, Leadership and Learning Lab, University of Michigan.
Ashton, P., and Webb, R. (1986). Making a Difference: Teachers' Sense of Efficacy and Student Achievement, Longman, New York.
Atkinson, J. W., and Feather, N. T. (eds.) (1966). A Theory of Achievement Motivation, Wiley, New York.
Atkinson, J. W., and Raynor, J. O. (eds.). (1974). Motivation and Achievement, Wiley, New York.
Bailey, S. M. (1993). The current status of gender equity research in American schools. Educ. Psychol. 28(4): 321–339.
Baldwin, M. W. (1992). Relational schemas and the processing of social information. Psychol. Bull. 112: 461–484.
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educ. Psychol. 28(2): 117–148.
Baumeister, R. F. (1984). Choking under pressure: Self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance. J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 46: 610–620.
Baumeister, R. F. (1995). Self and identity: An introduction. In Tesser, A. (ed.), Advanced Social Psychology, McGraw Hill, New York, pp. 51–97.
Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., and Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educ. Psychol. 26: 369–398.
Boring, E. G. (1950). A History of Experimental Psychology (2nd Ed.), Appleton-Century-Crafts, New York.
Borkowski, J. G., Weyhing, R. S., and Carr, M. (1988). Effects of attributional retraining on strategy-based reading comprehension of learning-disabled students. J. Educ. Psychol. 80: 46–53.
Bornholt, L. T., Goodnow, J., and Conney, G. (1994). Influences of gender stereotypes on adolescent's perceptions of their own achievement. Am. Educ. Res. J. 31: 675–692.
Brown, A. L., and Palincsar, A. S. (1989). Guided cooperative learning and individual knowledge acquisition. In Resnick, L. B. (ed.), Knowing and Learning: Issues for a Cognitive Psychology of Learning. Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 393–451.
Cameron, J., and Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, reward and intrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis. Rev. Educ. Res., 64: 363–423.
Caplan, N., Whitmore, J. K., and Choy, M. H. (1992). The Boat People and Achievement in America. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI.
Clifford, M. M. (1988). Failure tolerance and academic risk-taking in ten-to twelve-year-old students. Brit. J. Educ. Psychol. 58(1): 15–27.
Cordova, D. (1993). The Effects of Personalization and Choice of Students' Intrinsic Motivation and Learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA.
Covington, M. V. (1992). Making the Grade: A Self-Worth Perspective on Motivation and School Reform, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Crocker, J., and Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychol. Rev. 96: 608–630.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1978). Intrinsic rewards and emergent motivation. In Lepper, M. R., and Greene, D. (eds.), The Hidden Costs of Reward, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Nakamura, J. (1989). The dynamics of intrinsic motivation: A study of adolescents. In Ames, C. and Ames, R. (eds.), Research on Motivation and Education, (Vol. 3), Academic Press, New York, pp. 45–71.
deCharms, R. (1976). Enhancing Motivation: Changes in the Classroom, Irvington, New York.
Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic Motivation, Plenum, New York.
Dweck, C. S., Hong, Y., and Chiu, C. (1993). Implicit theories: Individual differences in the likelihood and meaning of dispositional inference. Person. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 19: 644–656.
Eccles, J. S. (1989). Bringing young women to math and science. In Crawford, M., and Gentry, M. (eds.), Gender and Thought: Psychological Perspectives, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 36–58.
Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., and Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values and academic behaviors. In Spence, J. T. (ed.), Achievement and Achievement Motivation, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, CA.
Eccles, J. S., Kaczala, C. M., and Meece, J. (1982). Socialization of achievement attitudes and beliefs: Classroom influences. Child Devel. 53: 322–339.
Eccles, J. S., and Midgley, C. (1989). Stage/environment fit: Developmentally appropriate classrooms for early adolescents. In Ames, R. E., and Ames, C. (eds.), Research on Motivation in Education (Vol. 3), Academic Press, New York, pp. 139–186.
Eccles, J., Wigfield, A., Harold, R., and Blumenfeld, P. (1993). Age and gender differences in children's self and task perceptions during elementary school. Child Devel. 64: 830–847.
Edwards, W. (1954). The theory of decision making. Psychol. Bull. 51: 380–417.
Eisenberger, R., and Cameron, J. (1996). Detrimental effects of reward: Reality or myth? Am. Psychol. 51:(11): 1153–1166.
Elliot, A. J., and Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 70: 461–475.
Entwistle, D. R. (1972). To dispel fantasies about fantasy-based measures of achievement motivation. Psychol. Bull. 77: 377–391.
Feather, N. T. (1982). Expectations and Actions: Expectancy-Value Models in Psychology. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
Fennema, E., and Leder, G. (1990). Mathematics and Gender. Teacher's College Press, New York.
Fiske, S. T. (1995). Social cognition. In Tesser, A. (ed.), Advanced Social Psychology, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 150–193.
Flanagan, C. (1993). Gender and social class: Intersecting issues in women's achievement. Educ. Psychol. 28: 357–378.
Foersterling, F. (1985). Attributional retraining: A review. Psychol. Bull. 98: 495–512.
Ford, M., and Nicholls, C. W. (1991). Using goal assessments to identify motivational patterns and facilitate behavioral regulation and achievement. In Maehr, M. L., and Pintrich, P. R. (eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement: Vol. 7: Goals and Self-Regulation, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 51–84.
Fordham, S., and Ogbu, J. U. (1986). Black students' school success: Coping with the burden of “acting white.” Urban Rev. 18: 176–206.
Frey, K., and Ruble, D. N. (1987). What children say about classroom performance: Sex and grade differences in perceíved competenc. Child Devel. 58: 1066–1078.
Fyans, L. J., Jr., and Maehr, M. L. (1978). Attributional style, task selection and achievement. J. Educ. Psychol. 71: 499–507.
Gage, N. L. (1996). Confronting counsels of despair for the behavioral sciences. Educ. Res. 25: 5–15, 22.
Gergen, K. J. (1994). Exploring the postmodern: Perils or potentials. Am. Psychol. 49: 412–416.
Graham, S. (1991). A review of attribution theory in achievement contexts. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 3: 5–39.
Graham, S., and Golan, S. (1991). Motivational influences on cognition, task involvement, ego involvement, and depth of information processing. J. Educ. Psychol. 83: 187–194.
Harter, S. (1992). The relationship between perceived competence, effect, and motivational orientation within the classroom: Processes and patterns of change. In Boggiano, A. K., and Pittman, T. (eds.), Achievement and Motivation: A Social-Developmental Perspective, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 77–114.
Harter, S. (1993). Causes and consequences of low self-esteem in children and adolescents. In Baumeister, R. (ed.), Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard, Plenum, New York, pp. 87–116.
Hill, K. T. (1984). Debilitating motivation and testing: A major educational problem—possible solutions and policy application. In Ames, R. E., and Ames, C. (eds.), Research in Motivation in Education: Vol. 1: Student Motivation. Academic Press, New York.
Hill, K. T., and Wigfield, A. (1984). Test anxiety: A major educational problem and what can be done about it. Elem. School J. 85: 105–126.
Hoffman, L. M. (1992). Continuing Motivation in Elementary School Children: A Naturalistic Case Study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.
Howard, G. S. (1991). Culture tales: A narrative approach to thinking, cross-cultural psychology, and psychotherapy. Am. Psychol. 46: 187–197.
Hughes, B., Sullivan, H. J., and Mosley, M. L. (1985). External evaluation, task difficulty, and continuing motivation. J. Educ. Res. 78(4): 210–215.
Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of Behavior, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.
Juvonen, J., and Nishina, A. (in press). Social motivation in the classroom: Attributional accounts and developmental analysis. In Maehr, M., and Pintrich, P. R. (eds), Advances in Motivation and Achievement (Vol. 10), JAI Press, Greenwich.
Kahle, J., Parker, L., Rennie, L., and Riley, D. (1993). Gender differences in science education: Building a model. Educ. Psychol. 28: 379–404.
Kaplan, A. (1996). Motivation as Contextual Schemas: Personal and Contextual Goals in School (unpublished manuscript).
Kaplan, A., and Maehr, M. (1997). School cultures: A critical variable in student motivation and learning. In Walberg, H. J., and Haertel, G. D. (eds.), Educational Psychology: Effective Practices and Policies, NSSE's Series on Contemporary Issues, McCutchan, Berkeley, CA.
Kaplan, A., and Maehr, M. L. (in press). Psychological Well-Being of African American and Euro-American Adolescents: Toward a Goal Theory Analysis. (submitted).
King, N. (1979). Play: The kindergartner's perspective. Elem. School J. 80(2): 80–87.
Klein, E., Kantor, R., and Fernie, D. (1988). What do young children know about school? Young Childr. 43: 32–39.
Ladd, G. W. (1990). Having friends, keeping friends, making friends and being liked by peers in the classroom: Predictors of children's early school adjustment. Child Devel. 61: 1081–1100.
Lazarus, R. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., and Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 28: 129–137.
Lepper, M. R., Keavney, M., and Drake, M. (1996). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards: A commentary on Cameron and Pierce's meta-analysis. Rev. Educ. Res. 66: 5–32.
Locke, E. A. (in press). The motivation to work: What we know. In Maehr, M. L., and Pintrich, P. R. (eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement (Vol. 10), JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.
Locke, E. A., and Latham, G. P. (1990a). A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Locke, E. A., and Latham, G. P. (1990b). Work motivation and satisfaction: Light at the end of the tunnel. Psychol. Sci. 1: 240–246.
Maehr, M. L. (1974). Culture and achievement motivation. Am. Psychol. 29: 887–896.
Maehr, M. L. (1976). Continuing motivation: An analysis of a seldom considered educational outcome. Rev. Educ. Res. 46: 443–462.
Maehr, M. L. (1983). On doing well in science: Why Johnny no longer excels—why Sarah never did. In Paris, S. (ed.), Learning and Motivation in the Classroom, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
Maehr, M. L. (1984). Meaning and motivation. In Ames, R., and Ames, C. (eds.), Research on Motivation in Education, Vol. 1: Student Motivation, Academic Press, New York.
Maehr, M. L. (1989). Thoughts about motivation. In Ames, C., and Ames, R. (eds.), Research on Motivation in Education, Vol. 3: Goals and Cognitions, Academic Press, New York.
Maehr, M. L. (1991). The “psychological environment” of the school: A focus for school leadership. In Thurston, P., and Zodhiatas, P. (eds.), Advances in Educational Administration (Vol. 2), JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.
Maehr, M. L., and Braskamp, L. A. (1986). The Motivation Factor: A Theory of Personal Investment, Heath and Co, Lexington, MA.
Maehr, M. L., and Kleiber, D. A. (1981). The graying of achievement motivation. Am. Psychol. 36: 787–793.
Maehr, M. L., and Midgley, C. (1991). Enhancing student motivation: A school-wide approach. Educ. Psychol. 26: 399–427.
Maehr, M. L., Midgley, C., and Urdan, T. (1992). School leader as motivator. Educ. Admin. Quart. 18: 412–431.
Maehr, M. L., Midgley, C., and collaborators (1996). Transforming School Cultures, Westview & Harper/Collins, Boulder.
Maehr, M. L., and Nicholls, J. (1980). Culture and achievement motivation: A second look. In Warren, N. (ed.), Studies in Cross-Cultural Psychology (Vol. 3), Academic Press, New York.
Maehr, M. L., and Parker, S. (1993). A tale of two schools—and the primary task of leadership. Phi Delta Kappan, 75: 233–239.
Maehr, M. L., and Pintrich, P. R. (Eds.) (1991). Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Vol. 7: Goals and Self-Regulation, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.
Maehr, M. L., and Sjogren, D. (1971). Atkinson's theory of achievement motivation: First step toward a theory of academic motivation? Rev. Educ. Res. 41: 143–161.
Markus, H. R., and Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychol. Rev. 98: 224–253.
Markus, H., and Nurius, P. S. (1986). Possible selves. Am. Psychol. 41: 954–969.
Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and Personality, Harper, New York.
McCaslin, M. M., and Murdock, T. B. (1991). The emergent interaction of home and school in the development of students' adaptive learning. In Maehr, M. L. and Pintrich, P. R. (eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement (Vol. 7), JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 213–259.
McClelland, D. C. (1961). The Achieving Society. Van Nostrand, Princeton, NJ.
McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., and Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychol. Rev. 96: 690–702.
McClelland, D. C. and Winter, D. G. (1971). Motivating Economic Achievement, Free Press, New York.
Meece, J. L. (1991). The classroom context and students' motivational goals. In Pintrich, P. R., and Maehr, M. L. (eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Vol. 7: Goals and Self-Regulatory Processes, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.
Meece, J., and Eccles, J. (1993). Introduction: Recent trends in research on gender and education. Educ. Psychol. 28: 313–319.
Meyer, H., and Gelpi, A. (1997). Children's Conceptions of School: Using Classroom Video to Facilitate Dialogue with Kindergartners. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago.
Midgley, C. (1993). Motivation and middle level schools. In Pintrich, P. R., and Maehr, M. L. (eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Vol. 8: Motivation in the Adolescent Years JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 219–276.
Midgley, C., Arunkumar, R., and Urdan, T. C. (1996). “If I don't do well tomorrow, there's a reason.” Predictors of adolescents' use of academic self-handicapping strategies. J. Educ. Psychol. 88: 423–434.
Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in Personality, Oxford University Press, New York.
Nicholls, J. G. (1989). The Competitive Ethos and Democratic Education, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Nicholls, J. G., Cobb, P., Wood, T., Yackel, E., and Patashnick, M. (1990). Assessing students' theories of success in mathematics: Individual and classroom differences. J. Res. Math. Educ. 21: 109–122.
Nicholls, J. G., and Hazzard, S. P. (1993). Education as Adventure: Lessons from the Second Grade, Teachers College Press, New York.
Nicholls, J. G., Nelson, J. R., and Gleaves, K. (1995). Learning “facts” versus learning that most questions have many answers: Student evaluations of contrasting curricula. J. Educ. Psychol. 87: 253–260.
Ogbu, J. U. (1978). Minority Education and Caste: The American System in Cross-Cultural Perspectives, Academic Press, New York.
Ogbu, J. U. (1982). Cultural discontinuities and schooling. Anthropol. Educ. Quart. 13: 290–307.
Palincsar, A. S., and Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognit. Instr. 1: 117–175.
Pascarella, E. T., Walberg, H. J., Junker, L. K., and Haertel, G. D. (1981). Continuing motivation in science for early and late adolescents. Am. Educ. Res. J. 18(4): 439–452.
Peterson, P., and Fennema, E. (1985). Effective teaching, student engagement in classroom activities, and sex related differences in learning mathematics. Am. Educ. Res. J. 22: 209–335.
Phillips, D. C. (1995). The good, the bad, and the ugly: The many faces of constructivism. Educ. Res. 24: 5–12.
Phinney, J. S. (1996). When we talk about American ethnic groups, what do we mean? Am. Psychol. 51: 918–927.
Pintrich, P. R., Cross, D. R., Kozma, R. B., and McKeachie, W. J. (1986). Instructional psychology. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 37: 611–651.
Pintrich, P. R., and De Groot, E. (1990a). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. J. Educ. Psychol. 82: 66–78.
Pintrich, P. R., and De Groot, E. (1990b). Quantitative and Qualitative Perspectives on Student Motivational Beliefs and Self-Regulated Learning. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA.
Pintrich, P. R., and De Groot, E. (1993). Narrative and Paradigmatic Perspectives on Individual and Contextual Differences in Motivation Beliefs. Paper presented in a symposium, “Broadening Methodological Perspectives for Motivation Research,” at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, GA.
Pintrich, P. R., and Garcia, T. (1991). Student goal orientation and self-regulation in the college classroom. In Maehr, M. L., and Pintrich, P. R. (eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement: Vol. 7. Goals and Self-Regulatory Processes. JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.
Pintrich, P. R., and Garcia, T. (1994). Self-regulated learning in college students: Knowledge, strategies, and motivation. In Pintrich, P. R., Brown, D., and Weinstein, C. E. (eds.) Student Motivation, Cognition, and Learning: Essays in Honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 113–133.
Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R., and Boyle, R. (1993). Beyond “cold” conceptual change: The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Rev. Educ. Res. 63: 167–199.
Pintrich, P. R., and Schrauben, B. (1992). Students' motivational beliefs and their cognitive engagement in academic tasks. In Schunk, D., and Meece, J. (eds.), Student Perceptions in the Classroom: Causes and Consequences, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 149–183.
Pintrich, P. R., and Schunk, D. (1996). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research and Applications. Merrill Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Pollard, D. S. (1993). Gender, achievement, and African-American students' perceptions of their school experience. Educ. Psychol. 28(4): 341–356.
Roberts, T. (1991). Gender and the influence of evaluations on self-assessments in achievement settings. Psychol. Bull. 109: 297–308.
Rosenau, P. M. (1992). Post-Modernism and the Social Sciences: Insights, in Roads and Intrusions. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Ryan, R. M., and Deci, E. L. (1996). When paradigms clash: Comments on Cameron and Pierce's claim that rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation. Rev. Educ. Res. 66: 33–38.
Salili, F. (1995). Explaining Chinese students' motivation and achievement: A socio-cultural analysis. In Maehr, M. L., and Pintrich, P. R. (eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement: Vol. 9: Culture, Motivation and Achievement, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 73–118.
Schunk, D. H. (1982). Effects of effort attributional feedback on children's perceived self-efficacy and achievement. J. Educ. Psychol. 74: 548–556.
Schunk, D. H. (1989). Self-efficacy and cognitive skill learning. In Ames, C., and Ames, R. (eds.), Research on Motivation and Education, Vol. 3: Goals and Cognitions, Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 13–44.
Schunk, D. H. (1991). Self-efficacy and academic motivation. Educ. Psychol. 26: 207–231.
Slavin, R. (1995). Cooperative Learning, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Smiley, P. A., and Dweck, C. S. (1994). Individual differences in achievement goals among young children. Child Devel. 65: 1723–1743.
Smith, M. B. (1994). Selfhood at risk: postmodern perils and the perils of postmodernism. Am. Psychol. 49: 405–411.
Steele, C. M. (1992). Race and the schooling of Black Americans. Atlantic Monthly, 68–78.
Steele, C. M., and Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. J. Person. Soc. Psychol. 69: 797–811.
Stevenson, H. W., and Stigler, J. W. (1992). The Learning Gap: Why Our Schools Are Failing and What We Can Learn from Japanese and Chinese Education, Summit Books/Simon and Schuster, New York.
Stipek, D., and MacIver, D. (1989). Developmental change in children's assessment of intellectual competence. Child Devel. 60: 521–538.
Stipek, D., Feiler, R., Daniels, D., and Milburn, S. (1995). Effects of different instructional approaches on young children's achievement and motivation. Child Devel. 66: 209–223.
Triandis, H. C. (1972). The Analysis of Subjective Culture, Wiley, New York.
Triandis, H. C. (1990). Cross-cultural studies of individualism and collectivism. In Berman, J. (ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1989, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE, pp. 41–133.
Urdan, T. C. (in press). Achievement goal theory: Past results, future directions. In Maehr, M. L., and Pintrich, P. R. (eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement (Vol. 10), JAI Press, Greenwich, CT.
Urdan, T. C., and Maehr, M. L. (1995). Beyond a two-goal theory of motivation and achievement: A case for social goals. Rev. Educ. Res. 65: 213–243.
Urdan, T. C., Midgley, C., and Wood, S. (1995). Special issues in reforming middle level schools. J. Early Adolesc. 15: 9–37.
Weiner, B. (1985). Human Motivation, Springer-Verlag, New York.
Weiner, B. (1986). An Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion, Springer-Verlag, New York.
Weiner, B. (1990). History of motivational research in education. J. Educ. Psychol. 82: 616–622.
Weiner, B. (1994). Integrating social and personal theories of achievement striving. Rev. Educ. Res. 64: 557–573.
Wentzel, K. (1991). Social and academic goals at school: Motivation and achievement in context. In Pintrich, P. R., and Maehr, M. L. (eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement: Vol. 7. Goals and Self-Regulatory Processes, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, pp. 185–212.
White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychol. Rev. 66: 297–333.
White, R. W. (1960). Competence and the psychosexual stages of development. In Jones, M. R. (ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Wigfield, A. (1994). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation: A developmental perspective. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 6: 49–78.
Wylie, R. (1974). The Self-Concept (Vol. 1, rev. Ed.), University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Wylie, R. (1979). The Self-Concept, Vol. 2: Theory and Research on Selected Topics, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. J. Educ. Psychol. 81: 329–339.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Maehr, M.L., Meyer, H.A. Understanding Motivation and Schooling: Where We've Been, Where We Are, and Where We Need to Go. Educational Psychology Review 9, 371–409 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024750807365
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024750807365