Skip to main content

DARE to be You: A Family-Support, Early Prevention Program

Journal of Primary Prevention volume 18, pages 257–285 (1998)Cite this article

Abstract

DARE to be You is a multi-level prevention program aimed at 2-5 year olds in high-risk families. Program objectives focus on aspects of parenting that contribute to youths' resiliency to later substance use. These include improving parents' self-efficacy, effective child rearing, social support, and problem-solving skills as well as children's developmental attainments. Over a 5-year period, successive cohorts of families were randomly assigned to an experimental (n = 496) or control (n = 301) group. The DTBY program was provided to children, families, preschool teachers, and community professionals who work with youth. Families received a minimum of 24 hours of programs with follow-up support. Program replicability was tested at four sites, which varied in population density (urban, town, rural) and ethnic composition (Ute Mountain Ute, Hispanic, Anglo). Evaluation data reveal significant, persistent increases in parental self-appraisals and democratic child-rearing practices, with a corresponding decrease in harsh discipline. Parent satisfaction with social support increased; target children's developmental levels were enhanced and oppositional behavior declined. Implications for effective family intervention and self-efficacy as a key mechanism of change are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

REFERENCES

  • Achenbach, T. M. & McConaughy, S. H. (1987). Empirically based assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology. Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, S. C., & Lauderdale, M. L. (1982). Characteristics of abusive parents: A look at self-esteem. Child Abuse & Neglect, 6, 285–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, S. R., et al. (1982). The skills of mothering: A study of Parent Child Development Centers. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 47 (Serial No. 198).

  • Antonucci, T. C. (1986). Social support networks: A hierarchical mapping technique. Generations, summer, 10–12.

  • Azar, S. T., Robinson, D.R., Hekimian, E., & Twentyman, C. (1984). Unrealistic explanations and problem-solving ability in maltreating and comparison mothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 687–691.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14, 56–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 83–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biddle, B. J., Bank, B. J., & Marlin, M. M. (1980). Parental and peer influence on adolescents. Social Forces, 58, 1057–1079.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brook, J. S., Brook, D. W., Gordon, A. S., Whiteman, M., & Cohen, P. (1990). The psychosocial etiology of adolescent drug use: A family interactional approach. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 116, 111–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brophy, J. E. (1983). Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 631–661.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burr, W. R., & Christensen, C. (1992). Undesirable side effects of enhancing self-esteem. Family Relations, 41, 460–464.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, J. M., Backman, J. E., & Smith, I. M. (1986). Developmental assessment: The clinical use and validity of parental report. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 11, 549–559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canfield, J. (1976). One hundred ways to enhance self-concept in the classroom: A handbook for teachers and parents. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Climent, C. E., Victoria de Aragon, L., & Plutchik, R. (1990). Prediction of risk for drug use in high school students. International Journal of the Addictions, 25, 545–556.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, J., & Wellborn, J. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of the self-system processes. In M. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self processes and development (pp. 43–77). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, R. H., & Landsverk, J. (1988). Parenting styles and substance use during childhood and adolescence. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, 473–482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corse, S. J., Schmid, K., & Trickett, P. K. (1990). Social network characteristics of mothers in abusing and nonabusing families and their relationships to parenting beliefs. Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 44–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dix, T. H., & Grusec, J. E. (1985). Parent attribution processes in the socialization of children. In I. E. Sigel (Ed.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for children (pp. 201–233). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dix, T. H., Ruble, D. N., & Zambarano, R. J. (1989). Mothers' implicit theories of discipline: Child effects, parent effects, and the attribution process. Child Development, 60, 1373–1391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunst, C. J., & Trivette, C. M. (1990). Assessment of social support in early intervention programs. In S. J. Meisels & J. P. Shonkoff (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention. Cambridge: Cambridge University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faber, A. & Mazlish, E. (1980). How to talk so kids will listen & listen so kids will talk. New York: Avon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, H., et al. (1993). Predictors of behavior problems in three-year-old sons of alcoholics: Early evidence for onset of risk. Child Development, 64, 110–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fritz, J. J., Miller-Heyl, J., Kreutzer, J. C., & MacPhee, D. (1995). Fostering personal teaching efficacy through staff development and classroom activities. Journal of Educational Research, 88, 200–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher, J. J. (1990). The family as a focus for intervention. In S. J. Meisels & J. P. Shonkoff (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (pp. 540–559). Cambridge: Cambridge University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerard, A. B. (1994). The Parent-Child Relationship Inventory: Manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodban, N. (1985). The psychological impact of being on welfare. Social Services Review, 59, 403–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottfried, A. W., Guerin, D., Spencer, J. E., & Meyer, C. (1984). Validity of the Minnesota Child Development Inventory in screening young children's developmental status. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 9, 219–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1992). Visions of self: Beyond the me in the mirror. In J. E. Jacobs (Ed.), Developmental perspectives on motivation (pp. 99–144). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, J. D., & Weis, J. G. (1985). The social developmental model: An integrated approach to delinquency prevention. Journal of Primary Prevention, 6, 73–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinde, R., Tamplin, A., & Barrett, J. (1993). A comparative study of relationship structure. British Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 191–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, S. J., & Robins, L. N. (1988). The role of parental disciplinary practices in the development of depression and alcoholism. Psychiatry, 51, 24–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ireton, H., & Thwing, E. (1974). Manual for the Minnesota Child Development Inventory. Minneapolis: Behavioral Science Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knight, G. P., Virdin, L. M., & Roosa, M. (1994). Socialization and family correlates of mental health outcomes among Hispanic and Anglo American children: Consideration of cross-ethnic scalar equivalence. Child Development, 65, 212–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larrance, D. T., & Twentyman, C. T. (1983). Maternal attributions and child abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 92, 449–457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, H. (1981). Differentiating among internality, powerful others, and chance. In H. M. Lefcourt (Ed.), Research with the locus of control construct (vol. 1): Assessment methods (pp. 15–63). Orlando: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, E. W., & Hanson, M. J. (1992). Steps in the right direction: Implications for interventionists. In E. W. Lynch & M. J. Hanson (Eds.), Developing cross-cultural competence (pp. 355–370). Baltimore: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacPhee, D. (1986, April). The measurement of difficult child behavior. Poster presented at the biennial International Conference on Infant Studies, Los Angeles.

  • MacPhee, D., Benson, J. B., & Bullock, D. (1986, April). Influences on maternal self-perceptions. Poster presented at the biennial International Conference on Infant Studies, Los Angeles.

  • MacPhee, D., Fritz, J., & Miller-Heyl, J. (1996). Ethnic variations in personal social networks and parenting. Child Development, 67, 3278–3295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H., Cross, S., & Wurf, E. (1990). The role of the self-system in competence. In R. Sternberg & J. Kolligian (Eds.), Competence considered (pp. 205–226). New Haven, CT: Yale University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, N. (1982). The public welfare system: Regulation and dehumanization. In D. Belle (Ed), Lives in stress: Women and depression (pp. 96–108). Beverly Hills: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C. (1990). Impact of economic hardship on block families and children: Psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61, 311–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moos, R. H., & Trickett, E. J. (1987). Classroom Environment Scale (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Research Council. (1993). Losing generations: Adolescents in high-risk settings. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niethammer, C. (1977). Daughters of the earth: The lives and legends of American Indian women. New York: Collier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ozer, E. M., & Bandura, A. (1990). Mechanisms governing empowerment effects: A self-efficacy analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 472–486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R. (1980). Mothers: The unacknowledged victims. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 45 (Serial No. 186).

  • Pettit, J. (1990). Utes: The mountain people (rev. ed.). Boulder, CO: Johnson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petraitis, J., Flay, B. R., & Miller, T. Q. (1995). Reviewing theories of adolescent substance use: Organizing pieces in the puzzle. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 67–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, R. H., Cowen, E. L., Lorion, R. P., & Ramos-McKay, J. (1989). The search for effective prevention programs. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 49–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramey, C. T., MacPhee, D., & Yeates, K. O. (1982). Preventing developmental retardation: A General Systems model. In L. A. Bond and J. M. Joffe (Eds.), Facilitating infant and early childhood development (pp. 343–401). Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rees, C. D., & Wilborn, B. L. (1983). Correlates of drug use in adolescents: A comparison of families of drug abusers with families of nondrug abusers. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 12, 55–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reis, J., Barbera-Stein, L., & Bennett, S. (1986). Ecological determinants of parenting. Family Relations, 35, 547–554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rist, R. (1970). Student social class and teacher expectations: The self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto education. Harvard Educational Review, 40, 411–451.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. S., & Reppucci, N. D. (1985). Primary prevention of child abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 576–585.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Baldwin, A., & Baldwin, C. (1993). Stability of intelligence from preschool to adolescence: The influence of social and family risk factors. Child Development, 64, 80–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schorr, L. B. (1989). Within our reach. New York: Anchor.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sirignano, S. W., & Lachman, M. E. (1985). Personality change during the transition to parenthood: The role of perceived infant temperament. Developmental Psychology, 21, 558–567.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spoth, R., Redmond, C., Haggerty, K., & Ward, T. (1995). A controlled parenting skills outcome study examining individual differences and attendance effects. Journal of Maniage and the Family, 57, 449–464.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staub, E. (1992). The origins of caring, helping, and nonaggression. In P. M. Oliner, et al. (Eds.), Embracing the other: Philosophical, psychological, and historical perspectives on altrusim. New York: New York University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sturner, R. A., Funk, S. G., Thomas, P. D., & Green, J. A. (1982). An adaptation of the Minnesota Child Development Inventory for preschool developmental screening. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 7, 295–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trickett, P. K., & Susman, E. J. (1988). Parental perceptions of child-rearing practices in physically abusive and nonabusive families. Developmental Psychology, 24, 270–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Upshur, C. C. (1990). Early intervention as preventive intervention. In S. J. Meisels & J. P. Shonkoff (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (pp. 633–650). Cambridge: Cambridge University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C. (1990). Stress: A potential disruptor of parent perceptions and family interactions. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 302–312.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. CSU Cooperative Extension, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523

    Jan Miller-Heyl

  2. Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Colorado State University, USA

    David MacPhee & Janet J. Fritz

Authors
  1. Jan Miller-Heyl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David MacPhee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Janet J. Fritz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Miller-Heyl, J., MacPhee, D. & Fritz, J.J. DARE to be You: A Family-Support, Early Prevention Program. The Journal of Primary Prevention 18, 257–285 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024602927381

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024602927381

  • effective parenting
  • family support
  • resilience
  • self-efficacy
  • substance abuse prevention