Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Brief Psychological Intervention with Traumatized Young Women: The Efficacy of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing

  • Published:
Journal of Traumatic Stress

Abstract

To study the efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) with traumatized young women, 60 women between the ages of 16 and 25 were randomly assigned to two sessions of either EMDR or an active listening (AL) control. Factorial ANOVA interaction effects and simple main effects for outcome measures (Beck Depression Inventory, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Penn Inventory for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Impact of Event Scale, Tennessee Self-Concept Scale) indicated significant improvement for both groups and significantly greater pre-post change for EMDR-treated participants. Pre-post effect sizes for the EMDR group averaged 1.56 compared to 0.65 for the AL group. Despite treatment brevity, the posttreatment outcome variable means of EMDR-treated participants compared favorably with nonpatient or successfully treated norm groups on all measures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acierno, R., Tremont, G., Last, C. G., & Montgomery, D. (1994). Tripartite assessment of the efficacy of eye-movement desensitization in a multi-phobic patient. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 8, 259–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagley, C., & Ramsay, R. (1985). Psychosocial outcome and implications for social work practice. Journal of Social Work and Human Sexuality, 4, 33–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, W., & Melnyk, W. T. (1994). A controlled comparison of eye movements and finger tapping in the treatment of test anxiety. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 29–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., & Steer R. A. (1993). Beck Depression Inventory manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, J. E., & Becker, F. W. (1986). Early identification of high social risk. Health and Social Work, 11(1), 26–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boudewyns, P. A. (1996). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Conceptualization and treatment. Behavior Modification, 30, 165–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boudewyns, P. A., Stwertka, S. A., Hyer, L. A., Albrecht, J. Q., & Sperr, E. V. (1993). Eye movement desensitization for PTSD of combat: A treatment outcome pilot study. The Behavior Therapist, 16, 29–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J., & Runtz, M. (1986). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors in former sexual abuse victims. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 18, 413–423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, A., & Finkelkor, D. (1986). Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 66–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bush, M., & Bassner, S. M. (1988). A description and clinical research applications of the control-mastery theory. Clinical Social Work Journal, 16(3), 231–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, J. C., & Chemtob, C. N., Rusnak, K., Hedlund, N. L., & Muraoka, M. Y. (1998). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 3–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chemtob, C. M. (1996). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment for children with treatment resistant disaster related distress. Presentation at annual meeting of International Society of Traumatic Stress Studies; San Francisco, CA, November 1996.

  • Cocco, N., & Sharpe, L. (1993). An auditory variant of eye movement desensitization in a case of childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 24(4), 373–377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Creamer, M., Burgess, P., & Pattison, P. (1992). Reaction to trauma: A cognitive processing model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(3), 452–459.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahlstrom, W. G., Brooks, J. D., & Peterson, C. D. (1990). The Beck Depression Inventory: Item order and impact of response sets. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55(1,2) 224–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dutton, M. A., Burghard, K. J., Perrin, S. G., Chrestman, K. R., & Halle, P. M. (1994). Battered women's cognitive schemata. Journal of Troumatic Stress, 7, 237–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagle, M., & Wolitzky, D. L. (1982). Therapeutic influences in dynamic psychotherapy: A review and synthesis. In S. Slipp (Ed.) Curative factors in dynamic psychotherapy (pp. 349–378). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelkor, D., & Browne, A. (1985). The traumatic impact of child sexual abuse: A conceptualization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55(4), 530–541.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Hearst-Ikeda, D., & Perry, K. J. (1995). Evaluation of a brief cognitive-behavioral program for the prevention of chronic PTSD in recent assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63(6), 948–955.

    Google Scholar 

  • Follette, V. M., Polusny, M. A., Bechtle, A. E., & Naugle, A. E. (1996). Cumulative trauma: The impact of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(1), 25–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorcey, M., Santiago, J. M., & McCall-Perez, F. (1986). Psychological consequences for women sexually abused in childhood. Social Psychiatry, 21, 129–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, T. (1974). Parent effectiveness training. New York: Van Rees.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grainger, R. K., Levin, C., Allen-Byrd, L., Doctor, R. M., & Lee, H. (1997). An evaluation of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) with survivors of a natural disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 665–672.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, R. (1994). Applying eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) to the treatment of traumatized children: Five case studies. Anxiety Disorders Practice Journal, 1(2), 83–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, R. (1996). The information gap in the EMDR controversy. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 27, 67–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haaga, D. A. F., McDermut, W., & Ahrens, A. H. (1993). Discriminant validity of the Inventory to Diagnose Depression. Journal of Personality Assessment, 60(2), 285–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammarberg, M. (1992) Penn Inventory for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Psychometric properties. Psychological Assessment, 4(1), 67–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M. J., Field, N. P., & Classen, C. C. (1993). Stress response syndromes and their treatment. In L. L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.) Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (pp. 757–773). New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, M., Wilner, N., & Alvarez W. (1979). Impact of Event Scale: A measure of subjective stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 41(3), 209–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, J. A. (1994). An investigation of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) as a treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms of Vietnam combat veterans. Behavior Therapy, 25, 311–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazdin, A. E. (1993). Adolescent mental health: Prevention and treatment programs. American Psychologist, 48(2), 127–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kemp, A., Rawlings, E. L., & Green, B. L. (1991). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in battered women: A shelter sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 4 137–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C., & Grove, W. M. (1988). Normative comparisons in therapy outcome. Behavioral Assessment, 10, 147–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirk, R. E. (1982). Experimental design: Procedures for the beavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleinknecht, R. A. (1993). Rapid treatment of blood and injection phobias with Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 24, 211–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, C. (1994, Jul/Aug). The enigma of EMDR. Family Therapy Networker, 75–83.

  • Levin, C., Grainger, R. K., Allen-Byrd, L., & Fulcher, G. (1994, August). Efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for survivors of Hurricane Andrew: A comparative study. Paper presented at the 102nd annual conference of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, CA.

  • Lipke, H. & Botkin, A. (1992). Case studies of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychotherapy, 29(4), 591–595.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lohr, J. M., Tolin, D. F., & Kleinknecht, R. A. (1995). Eye movement desensitization of medical phobias: Two case reports. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 26, 141–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marmar, C. R. (1991). Brief dynamic psychotherapy of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatric Annals, 21(7), 405–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marquis, J. (1991). A report on seventy-eight cases treated by eye movement desensitization. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 22, 187–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCann, D. L. (1992). Post-traumatic stress disorder due to devastating burns overcome by a single session of eye movement desensitization. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 23, 319–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, R. W., & Ayllon, T. (1994). Eye movement desensitization across images: A single case design. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 23–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olsen, L., & Holmes, W. (1983). Youth at risk: Adolescence and maltreatment. Boston: Center for Applied Social Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oswalt, R., Anderson, M., Hagstrom, K., & Berkowitz, B. (1993) Evaluation of the one-session eye movement desensitization reprocessing procedure for eliminating traumatic memories. Psychological Reports, 73, 99–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pellicer, X. (1993). Eye movement desensitization treatment of child's nightmares: A case report. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 24, 73–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, A. C., Compas, B. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., Stemmler, M., Ey, S., & Grant, K. E. (1993). Depression in adolescence. American Psychologist, 48(2), 155–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips-Plummer, L., Potterat, J., Muth, S., Woodhouse, J. D., & Muth, J. (1995, March). Prevention of HIV risk behaviors among young women: Using community resources to explore alternatives to prostitution. Paper presented at the Behavioral Research and Evaluation Program Targeting Communities of Color (BREPTCC) Dissemination Conference, Atlanta, Georgia.

  • Puffer, M. K., Greenwald, R., & Elrod, D. E. (1996, November). A controlled study of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) with traumatized children and adolescents. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Francisco, CA.

  • Puk, G. (1991). Treating traumatic memories: A case report on the eye movement desensitization procedure. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 22, 149–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resick, P. A. (1993). The psychological impact of rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 223–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roid, G. H., & Fitts, W. H. (1991). Tennessee Self-Concept Scale: Revised manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothbaum, B. O. (1995, November). A controlled study of EMDR for PTSD. Paper presented at the 29th Annual Convention of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Washington, DC.

  • Russell, D. E. (1986). The secret trauma: Incest in the lives of girls and women. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanderson, A., & Carpenter, R. (1992). Eye movement desensitization versus image confrontation: A single-session crossover study of 58 phobic subjects. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 23, 269–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (1995). The effectiveness of psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 50(12), 965–974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, F. (1991). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing procedure: From EMD to EMDR: A new treatment model for anxiety and related traumata. Behavior Therapist, 14, 133–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, F. (1993). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in 1992. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 6(3), 417–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, F. (1995). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols and procedures. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silver, S. M., Brooks, A., & Obenchain, J. (1995). Treatment of Vietnam war veterans with PTSD: A comparison of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing, biofeedback, and relaxation training. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 337–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R. D., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spector, J., & Huthwaite, M. (1993). Eye-movement desensitization to overcome posttraumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 106–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinglass, P., & Gerrity, E. (1990). Natural disasters and post-traumatic stress disorder: Short-term versus long-term recovery in two disaster-affected communities. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1746–1765.

    Google Scholar 

  • U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1991). Adolescent health. (OTA-H-468) Washington D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. (1994). The body keeps the score: Memory and the evolving psychobiology of post-traumatic stress. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 1, 253–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. A., McFarlane, A. C., & van der Hart, O. (1996). A general approach to treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. In B. A. van der Kolk, A. C. McFarlane, & L. Weisaeth (Eds.) Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 417–440). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaughan, K., Armstrong, M. S., Gold, R., O'Connor, N., Jenneke, W., & Tarrier, N. (1994). A trial of eye movement desensitization compared to image habituation training and applied muscle relaxation in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 283–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, E. A., Katon, W. J., Hansom, J., Harrop-Griffiths, J., Holm, L., Jones, M. L., Hickok, L., & Jemelka, R. P. (1992). Medical and psychiatric symptoms in women with childhood sexual abuse. Psychosomatic Medicine 54, 658–664.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, C. G., Juba, M. P., Manifold, V., Kucala, T., & Anderson, P. (1991). The PTSD interview: Rationale, description, reliability and concurrent validity of a DSM-IIIR based technique. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 179–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1993). Teaching time-limited dynamic psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder and pathological grief. Psychotherapy, 30(4), 587–591.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisz, J. R., Donenberg, G. R., Han, S. S., & Kauneckis, D. (1995). Child and adolescent psychotherapy outcomes in experiments versus clinics: Why the disparity? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23(11), 93–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wernick, U. (1993). The role of the traumatic component in the etiology of sexual dysfunctions and its treatment with eye-movement desensitization procedure. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 19, 212–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, S. A., Becker, L. A., & Tinker, R. H. (1995). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment for psychologically traumatized individuals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63(6), 928–937.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, F. M. (1986). Meta-analysis: Quantitative methods for research synthesis. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wyatt, G., Guthrie, D., & Notgrass, C. M. (1992). Differential effects of women's child sexual abuse and subsequent sexual revictimization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 167–173.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. El Paso County Department of Health and Environment, Colorado Springs, Colorado, 80910

    Margaret M. Scheck

  2. Franciscan Family Wellness Program, Inc., Colorado Springs, Colorado, 80919

    Judith Ann Schaeffer

  3. Private Practice, Colorado Springs, Colorado, 80903

    Craig Gillette

Authors
  1. Margaret M. Scheck
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Judith Ann Schaeffer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Craig Gillette
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

About this article

Cite this article

Scheck, M.M., Schaeffer, J.A. & Gillette, C. Brief Psychological Intervention with Traumatized Young Women: The Efficacy of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing. J Trauma Stress 11, 25–44 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024400931106

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024400931106

Search

Navigation