Abstract
The historically unprecedented pace of internationalising organisations in the last twenty years has made the need for cross-cultural awareness, sensitivity and adaptability of expatriates in the daily operations of international businesses in host nation subsidiaries much more salient. One of the key aspects identified in literature as contributing towards achieving intercultural effectiveness of expatriates is cross-cultural training. The research presented in this paper examines the training provided to Australian expatriates in China, a nation that has loomed large in the current and future trading and expansion plans of many Australian corporations since it opened its doors to international commerce in the late 1970s. While academic literature has given increasing attention to recognising the skills necessary to achieve intercultural effectiveness in China, organisations are continuing to give scant time and resources to developing their expatriates' China awareness. Based on information gathered through semi-structured interviews conducted with Australian expatriates in Shanghai, this research indicates that while Australian organisations are recognising the need to employ expatriates that have prior China knowledge, organisational preparation remains negligible.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ashamalla, M.H. and M. Crocitto. (1997). “Easing Entry and Beyond: Preparing Expatriates and Patriates for Foreign Assignment Success.” International Journal of Commerce and Management 7(2), 106-114.
Austrade (Australian Trade Commission). (2002). China Profile. Canberra, Australian Trade Commission, Commonwealth Government of Australia, http:www.Austrade.gov.au, accessed 23/09/02.
Baumgarten, K. (1995). “The Training and Development of Staff for International Assignments.” In A. Harzing and J. Van Ruysseveldt (eds.), International Human Resource Management. London: Sage.
Bevan, S. (ed.). (2000). Jobson’s Year Book of Public Companies 1997-1998. Sydney: Dunn and Bradstreet Publishers.
Bhagat, R.S. and O.K. Prien. (1996). “Cross-Cultural Training in Organizational Contexts.” In D. Landis and R.W. Brislin (eds.), Handbook of Intercultural Training, 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Bird, A., J.S. Osland, M. Mendenhall, and S.C. Schneider. (1999). “Adapting and Adjusting to Other Cultures. What We Know But Don’t Always Tell.” Journal of Management Inquiry 8(2), 152-165.
Bjorkman, I. and A. Schaap. (1994). “Outsiders in the Middle Kingdom: Expatriate Managers in Chinese-Western Joint Ventures.” European Management Journal 12(2), 147-154.
Black, J., H. Gregorsen, and M. Mendenhall. (1992). Global Assignments. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Black, J.S. et al. (1999). Globalizing People Through International Assignments. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
Black, J., M. Mendenhall, and G. Oddou. (1991). “Toward a Comprehensive Model of International Adjustment: An Integration of Multiple Theoretical Perspectives.” Academy of Management Review 16(2), 291-317.
Britt, A. (2002). “Expatriates Want More Support from Home.” HR Magazine 47(7), 21-22.
Buttery, E.A. and Y.H. Wang. (1999). “The Development of a Guanxi Framework.” Marketing Intelligence and Planning 17(3), 147-154.
Caligiuri, P. (2000). “Selecting Expatriates for Personality Characteristics: A Moderating Effect of Personality on the Relationship Between Host National Contact and Cross-Cultural Adjustment.” Management International Review 40(1), 61-80.
Child, J. (1994). Chinese Management During the Age of Reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Commonwealth Government of Australia. (1995). Industry Taskforce on Leadership and Management Skills (Karpin Report). Enterprising Nation: Renewing Australia’s Managers to Meet the Challenges of the Asia-Pacific Century. Canberra: AGPS.
Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
De Cieri, H., P. Dowling, and K. Taylor. (1991). “The Psychological Impact of Expatriate Relocation on Partners.” The International Journal of HRM 2(3), 377-414.
Desphande, S. and C. Viswesvaran. (1992). “Is Cross-Cultural Training of Expatriate Managers Effective?” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 16, 295-310.
DFAT (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade). (2002). Australia Economic and Trade Statistics. Market Information and Analysis Section. June. Canberra, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Commonwealth Government of Australia, http:www.dfat.gov.au, accessed 23/09/02.
Enderwick, P. and D. Hodgson. (1993). “Expatriate Management Practices of New Zealand Business.” The International Journal of HRM 4(2), 407-423.
Forster, N. (1997). “The Persistent Myth of High Expatriate Failure Rates: A Reappraisal.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 8(4), 414-437.
Forster,N. (2000). “Expatriates and the Impact of Cross-Cultural Training.” Human Resource Management Journal 10(3), 63-78.
Forster, N. and M. Johnsen. (1996). “Expatriate Management in UK Companies New to the International Scene.” International Journal of HRM 7(1), 165-178.
Frazee, V. (1999). “Send Your Expats Prepared for Success.” Workforce 4(2), 6-8.
Garonzik, R., J. Brockner, and P.A. Siegel. (2000). “Identifying International Assignees at Risk for Premature Departure: The Interactive Effect of Outcome Favourability and Procedural Fairness.” Journal of Applied Psychology 85(1), 13-20.
GMAC. (2002). Global Relocation Trends 2001 Survey Report. New Jersey: GMAC Global Relocation Services.
Goodall, K. and M. Warner. (1997). “Human Resources in Sino-Foreign Joint Ventures: Selected Case Studies in Shanghai, Compared with Beijing.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 8(5), 569-594.
Guthrie, D. (1998). “The Declining Significance of Guanxi in China’s Economic Transition.” The China Quarterly 3, 254-282.
Hammer, M.R., R.L. Wiseman, J.L. Rasmussen, and J.C. Bruschke. (1998). “A Test of Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory: The Intercultural Adaptation Context.” Communication Quarterly 46(3), 309-326.
Harris, P. (1989). “Moving Managers Internationally: The Care and Feeding of Expatriates.” Human Resource Planning March, 49-54.
Harvey, C. (2001). “Britannia Rules OK for Young and Restless.” The Australian 17 July, 4.
Harvey, M. and M.N. Novicevic. (2001). “Selecting Expatriates for Increasingly Complex Global Assignments.” Career Development International 6(2/3), 69-86.
Harzing, A.-W. (1995). “The Persistent Myth of High Expatriate Failure Rates.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 6(2), 457-474.
Harzing, A.-W. (2002). “Are Our Referencing Errors Undermining Our Scholarship and Credibility? The Case of Expatriate Failure Rates.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 23(1), 127-148.
Hendry, C.A. (1994). Human Resource Strategies for International Growth. London: Routledge.
Hippler, T. (2000). “On-Site Adjustment Support for German Expatriates in the Republic of Ireland:AnExploratory Study.” IBAR 21(2), 15-38.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Huo, H.P., J.H. Huang, and N.K. Napier. (2002). “Divergence or Convergence: A Cross-National Comparison of Personnel Selection Practices.” Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources 40(1), 38-54.
Hutchings, K. (2002). “Cross-Cultural Adjustment of Expatriates in Organisations in China: Selection and In-Post Support.” Cross Cultural Management 9(3), 15-40.
Hutchings, K. and G. Murray. (2002). “Australian Expatriates’ Experiences in Working Behind the Bamboo Curtain: An Examination of Guanxi in Post-Communist China.” Asian Business and Management 1, 1-21.
Institute for Research into International Competitiveness (IRIC). (1995). Customer’s Views of Australian Management: Asian-Pacific Viewpoints. Perth: Curtin University.
Kaye, M. and G.K. Taylor. (1997). “Expatriate Culture Shock in China.” Journal of Managerial Psychology 12(8), 496-514.
Kraimer, M.L., S.J. Wayne, and R.A. Jaworski. (2001). “Sources of Support and Expatriate Performance: The Role of Expatriate Adjustment.” Personnel Psychology 54(1), 71-100.
Luo, Y. (2000). Guanxi and Business. Singapore: World Scientific.
Miles, M.B. and A.M. Huberman. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Milkovich, G.T. and J.T. Newman. (1996). Compensation, 5th edition. Chicago: Richard Irwin.
Morley, M., C. Burke, and G. Finn. (1999). “Irish Expatriates in Moscow: Exploratory Evidence on Aspects of Adjustment.” In C. Brewster and H. Harris (eds.), International HRM: Contemporary Issues in Europe. London: Routledge.
Nicholson, N. and M. West. (1988). Managerial Job Change: Men and Women in Transition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Osland, J. and A. Bird. (2000). “Beyond Sophisticated Stereotyping: Cultural Sense Making in Context.” Academy of Management Executive 14(1), 65-79.
Osland, J., S. DeFranco, and A. Osland. (1999). “Organisational Implications of Latin American Culture.” Journal of Management Inquiry 8(2), 19-234.
Osland, J., M. Snyder, and L. Hunter. (1998). “A Comparative Study of Managerial Styles Among Female Executives in Nicaragua and Costa Rica.” International Studies of Management and Organisations 28(2), 54-73.
Osman-Gani, A. (2000). “Developing Expatriates for the Asia-Pacific Region: A Comparative Analysis of Multinational Enterprise Managers from Five Countries Across Three Continents.” Human Resource Development Quarterly 11(3), 213-235.
Osman-Gani, A.M. (1999). “Expatriate Development for the Asia-Pacific Region: A Comparative Study of Expatriates from Five Countries Across Three Continents.” In Proceedings of the Academy of Human Resource Development Conference, K. P.
Osman-Gani, A.M., W.L. Tan, and T.S. Toh. (1998). “Training Managers for Overseas Business Operations in the Asia-Pacific Region: A Study of Singapore-Based Companies.” International Journal of Training and Development 2(2), 119-127.
Ralston, D., R.H. Terpstra, M.K. Cunniff, and D.J. Gustafson. (1995). “Do Expatriates Change Their Behaviour to Fit a Foreign Culture.” Management International Review 35(1), 109-122.
Richardson, J. (2000). “Metaphorical ‘Types’ and Human Resource Management: Self-Selecting Expatriates.” Industrial and Commercial Training 32(6), 209-218.
Sargent, J. and L. Matthews. (1998). “Expatriate Reduction and Mariachi Circles.” International Studies of Management and Organisations 28(2), 74-96.
Sekaran, U. (2000). Research Methods for Business. 3rd edition. New York: John Wiley.
Selmer, J. (1999). “Western Business Expatriates’ Coping Strategies in Hong Kong vs. the Chinese Mainland.” Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources 37(2), 92-107.
Selmer, J. (2001). “The Preference for Predeparture or Postarrival Cross-Cultural Training: An Exploratory Approach.” Journal of Managerial Psychology 16(1), 50-55.
Selmer, J. (2002). “Practice Makes Perfect? International Experience and Expatriate Adjustment.” Management International Review 42(1), 71-88.
Selmer, J., I. Torbiorn, and C.T. de Leon. (1998). “Sequential Cross-Cultural Training for Expatriate Business Managers: Pre-Departure and Post-Arrival.” International Journal of Human Resource Management 9(5), 832-840.
Shay, J. and T. Bruce. (1997). “Expatriate Managers.” Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Quarterly 38(1), 30-35.
Siu, Y.-M.N. (1996). “Getting in, Getting on, Getting out: The Role of Participant Observation Research in a Professional Organisation.” BRC Working Paper Series Number 960202, Hong Kong: Hong Kong Baptist University.
Trompenaars, F. and C. Hampden-Turner. (1997). Riding the Waves of Culture. Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business. 2nd edition. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Tung, R. (1981). “Selection and Training of Personnel for Overseas Assignments.” Colombia Journal of World Business 16, 68-78.
Tung, R. (1982). “Selection and Training Procedures of US, European and Japanese Multinationals.” California Management Review 25(1), 57-71.
Tung, R. (1988). The New Expatriates: Managing Human Resources Abroad. Cambridge: Ballinger.
Tung, R. (1990). “IHRM Policies and Practices: A Comparative Analysis.” Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management Supplement 2, 171-186.
Tung, R. and V. Worm. (2001). Network Capitalism: The Role of Human Resources in Penetrating the China Market.” International Journal of Human Resource Management 12(4), 517-534.
Varner, I.T. and T.M. Palmer. (2002). “Successful Expatriation and Organizational Strategies.” Review of Business 23(2), 8-11.
Von Glinow, M.A., E.A. Drost, and M.B. Teagarden. (2002). “Converging on IHRM Best Practices: Lessons Learned from a Globally Distributed Consortium on Theory and Practice.” Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources 40(1), 146-166.
Ward, C. and A. Rana-Deuba. (1999). “Acculturation and Adaptation Revisited.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 30(4), 422-442.
Welch, D. (1994). “Determinants of International Human Resource Management Approaches and Activities.” Journal of Management Studies 31(2), 139-164.
Zakaria, N. (2000). “The Effects of Cross-Cultural Training on the Acculturation Process of the Global Workforce.” International Journal of Manpower 21(6), 492-502.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hutchings, K. Cross-Cultural Preparation of Australian Expatriates in Organisations in China: The Need for Greater Attention to Training. Asia Pacific Journal of Management 20, 375–396 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024001600867
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024001600867