Abstract
In recent years, there has been a tendency to correlate the origin of modern culture and language with that of anatomically modern humans. Here we discuss this correlation in the light of results provided by our first hand analysis of ancient and recently discovered relevant archaeological and paleontological material from Africa and Europe. We focus in particular on the evolutionary significance of lithic and bone technology, the emergence of symbolism, Neandertal behavioral patterns, the identification of early mortuary practices, the anatomical evidence for the acquisition of language, the development of conscious symbolic storage, the emergence of musical traditions, and the archaeological evidence for the diversification of languages during the Upper Paleolithic. This critical reappraisal contradicts the hypothesis of a symbolic revolution coinciding with the arrival of anatomically modern humans in Europe some 40,000 years ago, but also highlights inconsistencies in the anatomically–culturally modern equation and the potential contribution of anatomically “pre-modern” human populations to the emergence of these abilities. No firm evidence of conscious symbolic storage and musical traditions are found before the Upper Paleolithic. However, the oldest known European objects that testify to these practices already show a high degree of complexity and geographic variability suggestive of possible earlier, and still unrecorded, phases of development.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Aiello, L. C. (1998). The foundation of human language. In Jablonski, N. G., and Aiello, L. C. (eds.), The Origin and Diversification of Language. Memoirs of the California Academy of Science, Vol. 24, San Francisco, pp. 21–34.
Aiello, L. C., and Dean, C. (1990). An Introduction to Human Evolutionary Anatomy, Academic Press, New York.
Altuna, J. (1975). Euskal Herria, Mensajero, Bilbao, Spain.
Altuna, J., and de la Rua, C. (1989). Dataciones absolutas de los cráneos del yacimiento prehistórico de Urtiaga. Munibe 41: 23–28.
Ambrose, S. H. (2001). Palaeolithic technology and human evolution. Science 291: 1748–1753.
Ammerman, A. J., and Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1984). The Neolithic Transition and the Genetics of Population in Europe, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
Arambourg, C. (1955). Sur l'attitude, en station verticale, des Néandertaliens. Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris, Série D 280: 804–806.
Arensburg, B. (1994). Middle Palaeolithic speech capabilities: A response to Dr. Lieberman. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 94: 279–280.
Arensburg, B., Schepartz, L. A., and Tillier, A.-M. (1992). The cervical vertebrae, mandible and hyoid from Kebara Mousterian hominid 2. Morphological and behavioural aspects. In Toussaint, M. (ed.), Cinq millions d'années. L'aventure humaine. Etudes et Recherches Archéologiques de l'Université de Liège 56, pp. 191–198.
Arensburg, B., Schepartz, L. A., Tillier, A.-M., Vandermeersch, B., and Rak, Y. (1990). A reappraisal of the anatomical basis for speech in Middle Palaeolithic hominids. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 83: 137–146.
Arensburg, B., Tillier, A.-M., Vandermeersch, B., Duday, H., Schepartz, L. A., and Rak, Y. (1989). A Middle Palaeolithic human hyoid bone. Nature 338: 758–760.
Armand, D., Pubert, E., and Soressi, M. (2001). Organisation saisonnière des comportements de prédation des Moustériens de Pech-de-l'Azé I. Premiers résultats. Paléo 13: 19–28.
Backwell, L. R., and d'Errico, F. (2001). Termite gathering by Swartkrans early hominids. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98(4): 1358–1363.
Bahn, P. (1996). New developments in Pleistocene art. Evolutionary Anthropology 4: 204–215.
Barandiarán, J. M. (1937). Antropología de la población vasca. In Obras Completas, Enciclopedia Vasca 12: 149–168.
Barham, L. S. (1998). Possible early pigment use in south-central Africa. Current Anthropology 39: 703–710.
Barham, L. S. (2000). The Middle Stone Age of Zambia, South Central Africa, Western Academic and Specialist Press, Bristol.
Barham, L. S. (2002). Systematic pigment use in the Middle Pleistocene of south central Africa. Current Anthropology 31(1): 181–190.
Bar-Yosef, O. (1992). Middle Paleolithic human adaptation in the Mediterranean Levant. In Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., and Kimura, T. (eds.), The Evolution and Dispersal of Modern Humans in Asia, Tokyo University, Tokyo, pp. 189–215.
Bar-Yosef, O. (1998). On the nature of transitions: The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic and Neolithic Revolution. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 8(2): 141–163.
Bar-Yosef, O., and Callander, J. (1999). The woman from Tabun: Garrod's doubts in historical perspective. Journal of Human Evolution 37: 879–885.
Bednarik, R. G. (1995). Concept-mediated marking in the Lower Paleolithic. Current Anthropology 36: 605–616.
Belfer-Cohen, A., and Hovers, E. (1992). In the eye of the beholder: Mousterian and Natufian burials in the Levant. Current Anthropology 34: 463–471.
Bibikov, S. N. (1976). Orchestre de l'âge de pierre en URSS. Archéologie 91, Ghent.
Bibikov, S. N. (1981). Drevneishii muzykal'nyi kompleks iz kostei mamonta. Ocherk material'noi i dukhovnoi kul'tury, paleoliticheskogo cheloveka, Naukova Dumka, Kiev.
Binford, L. R. (1977). Forty-seven trips. In Wright, R. S. V. (ed.), Stone Tools as Cultural Markers, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra, Australia, pp. 24–36.
Binford, L. R. (1979). Organization and formation processes: Looking at curated technologies. Journal of Anthropological Research 35: 255–273.
Binford, L. R. (1981). Bones. Ancient Men and Modern Myths, Academic Press, New York.
Binford, L. R. (1983). In Pursuit of the Past: Decoding the Archaeological Record, Thames and Hudson, London.
Binford, L. R. (1989). Isolating the transition to cultural adaptations: An organizational approach. In Trinkaus, E. (ed.), The Emergence of Modern Humans: Biocultural Adaptations in the Later Pleistocene, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 18–41.
Boëda, E. (1991). Approche de la variabilité des systèmes de production lithique des industries du Paléolithique inférieur et moyen: chronique d'une variabilité attendue. Techniques et Culture 17–18: 37–79.
Boëda, E. (1997). Technogénèse de systèmes de production lithique au Paléolithique inférieur et moyen en Europe occidentale et au Proche-Orient. Habilitation à diriger des recherches, Université Paris X–Nanterre.
Boëda, E., Bourguignon, L., and Griggo, C. (1998a). Activités de subsistance au Paléolithique moyen: couche VI3 b' du gisement d'Umm el Tlel (Syrie). In Brugal, J. P., Meignen, L., and Patou-Mathis, M. (eds.), Economie Préhistorique: les Comportements de Subsistance au Paléolithique, APDCA, Sophia Antipolis, France, pp. 243–258.
Boëda, E., Connan, J., Dessort, D., Muhesen, S., Mercier, N., Valladas, H., and Tisnerat, N. (1996). Bitumen as hafting material on Middle Paleolithic artefacts. Nature 380: 336–338.
Boëda, E., Connan, J., and Muhesen, S. (1998b). Bitumen as hafting material on Middle Paleolithic artefacts from the El Kowm Basin, Syria. In Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., and Bar Yosef, O. (eds.), Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 181–204.
Boëda, E., Geneste, J.-M., and Griggo, C. (1999). A Levallois point embedded in the vertebra of a wild ass (Equus africanus): Hafting, projectiles and Mousterian hunting weapons. Antiquity 73: 394–402.
Bomhard, A. R., and Kerns, J. C. (1994). The Nostratic Macrofamily: A Study in Distant Linguistic Relationship, Mouton de Gruyter, New York.
Bookstein, F., Schaefer, K., Prossinger, H., Seidler, H., Fieder, M., Stringer, C., Weber, G., Arsuaga, J., Slice, D., Rohlf, F., Recheis, W., Mariam, A., and Marcus, L. (1999). Comparing frontal cranial profiles in archaic and modern Homo by morphometric analysis. The Anatomical Record 257: 217–224.
Bordes, F. (1984). Leçons sur le Paléolithique. Cahiers du Quaternaire 7, Paris.
Brade, C. (1975). Die mittelalterlichen Kernspaltflöten mittel-und Nordeuropas. Schriften zür Vor-und Frühgeschichte 14, Göttinger.
Brade, C. (1982). The prehistoric flute: Did it exist? Galpin Society Journal 35: 138–150.
Brain, C. K., and Shipman, P. (1993). The Swartkrans bone tools. In Brain, C. K. (ed.), Swartkrans. A Cave's Chronicle of Early Man. Transvaal Museum Monograph, Vol. 8, Pretoria, South Africa, pp. 195–215.
Bresson, F. (1992). Aptitude au langage chez les Néandertaliens: apport d'une approche pluridisciplinaire. Bulletin et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris 4(1/2): 33–51.
Broca, P. (1888). Recherches sur la localisation de la faculté de langage articulé. Mémoire d'Anthropologie 5, Paris.
Brooks, A. S., Helgren, D. M., Cramer, J. S., Franklin, A., Hornyak, W., Keating, J. M., Klein, R. G., Rink, W. J., Schwarcz, H., Smith, J. N. L., Todd, N., Verniers, J., and Yellen, J. E. (1995). Dating and context of three Middle Stone Age sites with bone points in the Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire. Science 268: 548–553.
Brugal, J.-P. (1999). Middle Paleolithic subsistence on large Bovids: La Borde and Coudoulous I (Lot, France). In Gaudzinski, S., and Turner, E. (eds.), The Role of Early Humans in the Accumulation of European Lower and Middle Palaeolithic Bone Assemblages. Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Vol. 42, Mainz, Germany, pp. 263–266.
Buisson, D. (1990). Les flûtes Paléolithiques d'Isturitz (Pyrénées Atlantiques). Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 87(10–12): 420–433.
Buisson, D. (1994). Les flûtes Paléolithiques d'Isturitz. In La Pluridisciplinarité en Archéologie Musicale, Vol. I, VIème rencontres internationals d'archéologie musicale de l'ICTM, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, Paris, pp. 259–275.
Callow, P. (1986). Pleistocene landscapes and the Palaeolithic economy. In Callow, P. and Cornford, J. (eds.), La Cotte de St. Brelade 1961–1978. Excavations by C.B.M. McBurney, Geo Books, Norwich, England, pp. 365–376.
Campbell, L. (1998). Historical Linguistics. An Introduction, 2nd edn., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., and Cavalli-Sforza, F. (1995). The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution, Addison-Wesley, New York.
Cavalli-Sforza, L., Piazza, A., Menozzi, P., and Mountain, J. (1988). Reconstruction of human evolution: Bringing together genetic, archaeological and linguistic data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 85: 6002–6006.
Changeux, J.-P. (1983). L'Homme Neuronal, Fayard, Paris.
Chase, P. G. (1987). Spécialisation de la chasse et transition vers le Paléolithique supérieur. L'Anthropologie 91(1): 175–188.
Chase, P.G. (1989). How different was Middle Palaeolithic subsistence ? A zooarchaeological perspective on the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition. In Mellars, P., and Stringer, C (eds.), The Human Revolution: Behavioral and Biological Perspectives on the Origins of Modern Humans, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, pp. 321–338.
Chase, P. G. (1990). Sifflets du Paléolithique moyen? Les implications d'un coprolithe de coyote actuel. Bulletin de la Societé Préhistorique Française 87: 165–167.
Chase, P. G., and Nowell, A. (1998). Taphonomy of a suggested Middle Paleolithic bone flute from Slovenia. Current Anthropology 39(4): 184–194.
Chernysh, A. P. (1982). Molodova I: A unique Mousterian settlement on the Middle Dnestr, Moscow.
Chikhi, L., Nichols, R. A., Barbujani, G., and Beaumont, M. A. (2002). Y genetic data support the Neolithic demic diffusion model. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99(17): 11008–11013.
Clark, J. D., Oakley, K. P., Wells, L. H., and McClelland, J. A. C. (1947). New studies on Rhodesian Man. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Society 77: 4–33.
Conard, N. J., and Adler, D. S. (1997). Lithic reduction and hominid behavior in the Middle Paleolithic of the Rhineland. Journal of Anthropological Research 53: 147–175.
Conard, N. J., and Bolus, M. (2003). Radiocarbon dating the appearance of modern humans and timing of cultural innovations in Europe: New results and new challenges. Journal of Human Evolution 43: 331–371.
Cross, I., (1999). Is music the most important thing we ever did ? Music, development and evolution. In Suk, W. Y. (ed.), Music, Mind and Science, Seoul National University Press, Seoul, Korea, pp. 10–39.
Cross, I. (in press). Music, cognition, culture and evolution. In Zatorre, R., and Peretz, I. (eds.), The Biological Foundations of Music. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York.
Davidson, I. (1991). The archaeology of language origins—A review. Antiquity 65: 39–48.
Davidson, I., and Noble, W. (1989). The archaeology of perception. Traces of depiction and language. Current Anthropology 30: 125–155.
Deacon, T. (1992). Impressions of ancestral brains. In Jones, S., Martin, R., and Pilbeam, D. (eds.), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 116–117.
Deacon, H. J. (1993). Southern Africa and modern human origins. In Aitken, M. J., Stringer, C. B., and Mellars, P. A. (eds.), The Origins of Modern Humans and the Impact of Chronometric Dating, Princeton University Press, New Jersey, pp. 104–117.
Deacon, T. (1997). The Symbolic Species, Penguin, London.
Deacon, H. J., and Deacon, J. (1999). Human Beginnings in South Africa: Uncovering the Secrets of the Stone Age, David Philip, Cape Town, South Africa.
De Gusta, D., Gilbert, W. H., and Turner, S. P. (1999). Hypoglossal canal size and hominid speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 96(4): 1800–1804.
d'Errico, F. (1989). A reply to Alexander Marshack. Current Anthropology 30(4): 495–500.
d'Errico, F. (1991). Microscopic and statistical criteria for the identification of prehistoric systems of notation. Rock Art Research 8: 83–93.
d'Errico, F. (1991). Carnivore traces or Mousterian skiffle? Rock Art Research 8: 61–63.
d'Errico, F. (1995). A new model and its implications for the origins of writing: The La Marche antler revisited. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 5(2): 163–206.
d'Errico, F. (1996). Marshack's approach: Poor technology, biased sciences. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 6(1): 111–17.
d'Errico, F. (1998a). Palaeolithic origins of artificial memory systems: An evolutionary perspective. In Renfrew, C., and Scarre, C. (eds.), Cognition and Material Culture: The Archaeology of Symbolic Storage, McDonald Institute, Cambridge, pp. 19–50.
d'Errico, F. (1998b). No holes in my argument. The contribution of microscopy and taphonomy to the interpretation of the Divje Babe bone “flute.” The question of the Mousterian bone flute from Divje babe I Cave. Paper presented at Spodnja Idrija Congress, 7–10 May, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
d'Errico, F. (2000). Just a bone or a flute? The contribution of taphonomy and microscopy to the identification of prehistoric pseudo-musical instruments. Paper presented at the 2nd International Music Congress: The archaeology of early sound, 17–24 September, Blankenburg/Harz.
d'Errico, F. (2002). Memories out of mind: The archaeology of the oldest artificial memory systems. In Nowell, A. (ed.), In the Mind's Eye. International Monographs in Prehistory, Archaeological Series, Vol. 13, Ann Arbor, MI, pp. 33–49.
d'Errico, F. (in press-a). The invisible frontier. A multiple species model for the origin of behavioral modernity. Evolutionary Anthropology.
d'Errico, F. (in press-b). Not Just Us. A multiple species model for the origin of behavioral modernity, language, symbolism and art. In Chippindale, C. (ed.), Prehistoric Art at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Taking Stock and Envisioning the Future, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.
d'Errico, F., Backwell, L. R., and Berger, L. R. (2002). Bone tool use in termite foraging by early hominids and its impact on understanding early hominid behaviour. South African Journal of Science 97: 71–75.
d'Errico, F., and Cacho, C. (1994). Notation versus decoration in the Upper Palaeolithic: A case-study from Tossal de la Roca, Alicante, Spain. Journal of Archaeological Science 21: 185–200.
d'Errico, F., Henshilwood, C. S., and Nilssen, P. (2001). An engraved bone fragment from ca. 75 Kya Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa: Implications for the origin of symbolism. Antiquity 75: 309–318.
d'Errico, F., Julien, M., Liolios, D., Baffier, D., and Vanhaeren, M. (in press). Les poinçons en os des couches Châtelperroniennes et Aurignaciennes de la Grotte du Renne (Arcy-sur-Cure, Yonne): comparaisons technologiques, fonctionnelles et décor. In Approches fonctionnelles en préhistoire, BSPF, Paris.
d'Errico, F., and Nowell, A. (2000). A new look at the Berekhat Ram figurine: Implications for the origins of symbolism. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 10(1): 123–167.
d'Errico, F., and Sanchez Goni, M. F. (2003). Neandertal extinction and the millennial scale climatic variability of the OIS 3. Quaternary Science Review 22: 769–788.
d'Errico, F., and Soressi, M. (2002). Systematic use of pigment by Pech-de-l'Azé Neandertals: Implications for the origin of behavioral modernity. Paleoanthropology Society Meeting, 19–20 March, Denver. Journal of Human Evolution 42(3): A13.
d'Errico, F., and Vanhaeren, M. (2000). Mes morts et les morts de mes voisins. Le mobilier funéraire de l'Aven des Iboussières et l'identification de marqueurs culturels à l'Epipaléolithique. In Epipaléolithique et Mésolithique: les derniers chasseurs-cueilleurs d'Europe occidentale, Presses Universitaires de Franc-Comtoises, Besançon, pp. 325–342.
d'Errico, F., and Vanhaeren, M. (2002). Criteria for identifying red deer (Cervus elaphus) age and sex from their canines. Application to the study of Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic ornaments. Journal of Archaeological Science 29: 211–232.
d'Errico, F., and Villa, P. (1997). Holes and grooves: The contribution of microscopy and taphonomy to the problem of art origins. Journal of Human Evolution 33: 1–31.
d'Errico, F., Villa, P., Pinto, A., and Idarraga, R. (1998a). A Middle Paleolithic origin of music? Using cave bear bone accumulations to assess the Divje Babe I bone “flute.” Antiquity 72: 65–79.
d'Errico, F., Villa, P., Pinto, A., and Idarraga, R. (1998b). La “flûte” de Divje Babe et les accumulations naturelles d'ossements d'ours des cavernes. In Brugal, J.-P., Meignen, L., and Patou-Mathis, M. (eds.), Economie préhistorique: les comportements de subsistance au Paléolithique, Editions APDCA, Sophia Antipolis, France, pp. 85–104.
d'Errico, F., Zilhão, J., Baffier, D., Julien, M., and Pelegrin J. (1998c). Neandertal acculturation in western Europe? A critical review of the evidence and its interpretation. Current Anthropology 39: S1-S44.
Dolgopolsky, A. (1999). The Nostratic Macrofamily and Linguistic Palaeontology, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge.
Donald, M. (1991). Origins of Modern Mind, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Duarte, C., Mauricio, J., Pettitt, P. B., Suoto, P., Trinkaus, E., Van der Plicht, H., and Zilhão, J. (1999). The early Upper Paleolithic human skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho, Portugal and modern human emergence in Iberia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 96: 7604–7609.
Duday, H. (1978). Archéologie funéraire et anthropologie. Application des relevés et de l'étude ostéologiques à l'interprétation de quelques sépultures pré-et protohistoriques du midi de la France. Cahiers d'Anthropologie 1: 55–101.
Duday, H., (1995). Anthropologie “de terrain,” archéologie de la mort. In GVEP (eds.), La mort, passé, présent, conditionnel, GVEP, La Roche-sur-Yon, France, pp. 33–58.
Duday, H., Courtaud, P., Crubézy, E., Sellier, P., and Tillier, A.-M. (1990). L'Anthropologie “de terrain”: Reconnaissance et interprétation des gestes funéraires. Bulletin et Mémoire de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris 3–4: 29–50.
Eccles, J. (1989). Evolution of the Brain. Creation of the Self. Routledge, London.
Ellis, C. J. (1997). Factors influencing the use of stone projectile tips: An ethnographic perspective. In Knecht, H. (ed.), Projectile Technology, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 37–78.
Falk, D. (1987). Brain lateralization in primates and its evolution in Hominids. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 30: 107–125.
Faris, J. C. (1972). Nuba Personal Art, Duckworth, London.
Farizy, C. (1990). Du Moustérien au Châtelperronien à Arcy-sur-cure: un état de la question. In Farizy, C. (ed.), Paléolithique moyen récent et Paléolithique supérieur ancien en Europe, Mémoires du Musée de préhistoire d'Ile de France 3, Nemour pp. 281–290.
Farizy, C., and David, F. (1992). Subsistence and behavioral patterns of some Middle Paleolithic local groups. In Dibble, H., and Mellars, P. (eds.), The Middle Paleolithic: Adaptation, Behavior and Variability, University Museum Press, Philadelphia, pp. 87–96.
Fink, B. (1996). Neanderthal flute. Oldest musical instrument's 4 notes matches 4 of Do, Re, Mi scale. Musicological analysis. Available from http://www.webster.sk.ca/greenwich/fl-compl.htm
Fitch, W. T. (2000). The evolution of speech: A comparative review. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4(7): 258–267.
Friedman, E., Goren-Inbar, N., Rosenfeld, A., Marder, O., and Burian, F. (1994). Hafting during Mousterian times: Further indication. Journal of Israel Prehistorical Society 26: 8–31.
Gambier, D. (1989). Fossil Hominids from the early Upper Palaeolithic (Aurignacian) of France. In Stringer, C. B., and Mellars, P. (eds), The Human Revolution, Behavioural and Biological Perspectives in the Origins of Modern Humans, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, pp. 392–402.
Gambier, D. (1990). Pratiques funéraires au Paléolithique supérieur en France: Les sépultures primaires. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris 2(3/4): 19–28.
Gambier, D. (1997). Modern humans at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic in France: Range of anthropological data and perspectives. In Clark, G. A., and Willermet, C. M. (eds.), Conceptual Issues in Modern Human Origins Research, Aldine de Gruyter, New York, pp. 117–131.
Gambier, D. (2000). Aurignacian children and mortuary practice in Western Europe. Anthropologie, Brno 38(1): 5–21.
Gambier, D., Valladas, H., Tisnérat-Laborde, N., Arnold, M., and Bresson, F. (2000). Datation de vestiges humains présumés du Paléolithique supérieur par la méthode du C14 en SMA. Paléo 16: 1–11.
Gargett, R. H. (1989). Grave shortcomings: The evidence for Neandertal burial. Current Anthropology 30: 157–190.
Gargett, R. H. (1999). Middle Palaeolithic burial is not a dead issue: The view from Qafzeh, Sainte-Césaire, Kebara, Amud, and Dederiyeh. Journal of Human Evolution 37: 27–40.
Gaudzinski, S. (1999). Middle Palaeolithic bone tools from the open-air site Salzgitter-Lebenstedt (Germany). Journal of Archeological Science 26: 125–141.
Gaudzinski, S., and Roebroeks, W. (2000). Adult only: Reindeer hunting at the Middle Paleolithic site Salgitther-Lebenstedt, Northern Germany. Journal of Human Evolution. 38: 497–521.
Geneste, J.-M. (1985). Analyse d'industries moustériennes du Périgord: une approche technologique du comportement des groupes humains au Paléolithique moyen, PhD dissertation, Bordeaux University Bordeaux, France.
Geneste, J.-M. (1989). Economie des resources lithiques dans le Moustérien du SudOuest de la France. In Otte, M. (ed.), L'Homme de Néandertal, Vol. 6 La Subsistence, Etudes et Recherches Archéologiques de l'Université de Liège 33: 5–98.
Geneste, J.-M. (1990). Développement des systèmes de production lithique au cours du paléolithique moyen en Aquitaine septentrionale. In Farizy, C. (ed.), Paléolithique Moyen Récent et Paléolithique Supérieur Ancien en Europe. Mémoires du Musée de Préhistoire d'Ile-de-France, Vol. 3, pp. 203–213.
Gibson, K. (1985). Has the evolution of intelligence stagnated since Neanderthal man? In Butterworth, G., Rutkowska, J., and Sciafe, M. (eds.), Evolution and Developmental Psychology, Harvester Press, Brighton, England, pp. 102–114.
Gibson, K., and Mellars, P. (1996). Introduction. In Mellars, P., and Gibson, K. (eds.), Modelling the Early Human Mind, McDonald Institute, Cambridge, pp. 1–8.
Goonatilake, S. (1991). The Evolution of Information. Lineages in Gene, Culture and Artefact, Pinter, London.
Goren-Inbar, N. (ed.) (1990). Quneitra: A Mousterian Site on the Golan Heights. Qedem, Vol. 31, Jerusalem, Israel.
Goren.-Inbar, N. (1986). A figurine from the Acheulian site of Berekhat Ram. Mitekufat Haeven 19: 7–12.
Gowlett, J. A. J. (1984). Mental abilities of early man: A look at some hard evidence. In Foley, R. (ed.), Hominid Evolution and Community Ecology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 167–192.
Granger, J.-M., and Lévèque, F. (1997). Parure Castelperronienne et Aurignacienne: étude de trois séries inédites de dents percées et comparaisons. Comptes Rendus de l'Académies de Sciences de Paris 325: 537–543.
Greenberg, J. H. (2000). Indo-European and its Closest Relatives, Stanford University Press, Stanford, England.
Grün, R., and Stringer, C. B. (2000). Tabun revisited: Revised ESR chronology and new ESR and U-series analyses of dental material from Tabun C1. Journal of Human Evolution 39(6): 601–612.
GVEP (1995). La mort, passé, présent, conditionnel. Groupe Vendéen d'études préhistoriques. Actes du colloque de La Roche-sur-Yon, Juin 1994, GVEP, La Roche-sur-Yon, France, p. 203.
Hahn, J., and Münzel, S. (1995). Knochenflöten aus dem Aurignacien des Geißenklösterle bei Blaubeuren, Alb-Donau-Kreis. Fundberichte aus Baden-Württemberg Band 20: 1–12.
Hajraoui, M. A. (1994). L'Industrie osseuse atérienne de la Grotte d'el Mnasra. Préhistoire Anthropologie Méditerranéenes 3: 91–94.
Hayden, B. (1993). The cultural capacities of Neandertals: A review and re-evaluation. Journal of Human Evolution 24: 113–46.
Hein, W., (1998). Zur Rekonstruktion und Funktion jungpaläolithischer Knochenflöten. Musica Instrumentalis 1: 120–128.
Henry-Gambier, D. (2002). Les fossiles de Cro-Magnon (Les Eyzies-de-Tayac, Dordogne): nouvelles données sur leur position chronologique et leur attribution culturelle. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société Anthropologique de Paris, nouvelle série 14(1/2): 89–114.
Henshilwood, C. (1996). A revised chronology for the arrival of pastoralism in southernmost Africa: New evidence of sheep at 2000 B.P. from BBC, South Africa. Antiquity 70: 945–949.
Henshilwood, C., d'Errico, F., Marean, C., Milo, R., and Yates, R. (2001b). An early bone tool industry from the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, South Africa: Implications for the origins of modern human behaviour, symbolism and language. Journal of Human Evolution. 41: 631–678.
Henshilwood, C., d'Errico, F., Yates, R., Jacobs, Z., Tribolo, C., Duller, G. A. T., Mercier, N., Sealy, J. C., Valladas, H., Watts, I., and Wintle, A. G. (2002). Emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa. Science 295: 1278–1280.
Henshilwood, C., and Sealy, J. (1997). Bone artefacts from the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa. Current Anthropology 38: 890–895.
Henshilwood, C., Sealy, J., Yates, R., Cruz-Uribe, K., Goldberg, P., Grine, F. E., Klein, R. G., Poggenpoel, C., van Niekerk, K., and Watts, I. (2001a). Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa: Preliminary report on the 1992–1999 excavations of the Middle Stone Age levels. Journal of Archaeological Science 28(4): 421–448.
Hodder, I. (1979). Economic and social stress and material culture patterning. American Antiquity 44: 446–454.
Hoffecker, J. F. (2002). Desolate Landscapes: Ice-Age Settlement in Eastern Europe, Rutgers University Press, Piscataway, New Jersey.
Holloway, R. L. (1983). Human Paleontological evidence relevant to language behaviour. Human Neurobiology 2: 105–114.
Holloway, R. L. (1985). The poor brain of Homo sapiens neanderthalensis: See what you please. In Delson, E. (ed.), Ancestors: The Hard Evidence, Alan R. Liss, New York, pp. 319–324.
Houghton, P. (1993). Neandertal supralaryngeal vocal tract. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 90: 139–146.
Hovers, E., Vandermeersch, B., and Bar-Yosef, O. (1997). A Middle Paleolithic engraved artefact from Qafzeh Cave, Israel. Rock Art Research 14(2): 79–87.
Howell, F. C., and Freeman, L. G. (1983). Ivory points from the earlier Acheulean of the Spanish Meseta. In Homenaje al Prof. Martin Almagro Basch, Ministerio de Cultura, Madrid, pp. 41–61.
Huyge, D. (1990). Mousterian skiffle? Note on a Middle Palaeolithic engraved bone from Schulen, Belgium. Rock Art Research 7(2): 125–132.
Ingold, T. (1993). Introduction: Tools, techniques and technology. In Gibson, K., and Ingold, T. (eds.), Tools, Language and Cognition in Human Evolution, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 337–345.
Isaac, G. (1986). Foundation stones: Early artefacts as indicators and abilities. In Bailey, G. and Callow, P. (eds.), Stone Age Prehistory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 221–242.
Jacobs, Z., Duller, G. A. T., and Wintle, A. G. (in press). Optical dating of dune sand from Blombos Cave, South Africa: II—single grain data. Journal of Human Evolution.
Jakobson, R. (1980a). Langage Enfantin et Aphasie, Flammarion, Paris.
Jakobson, R., (1980b). Brain & Language. Cerebral Hemispheres and Linguistic Structure in Mutual Light. New York University Slavic Papers, Interdisciplinary Series, Vol. 4, Ohio.
Jones, S. (1997). The Archaeology of Ethnicity. Constructing Identities in the Past and Present, Routledge, London.
Joseph, B., and Salmons, J. (eds.) (1998). Nostratic: Sifting the Evidence, John Benjamins, Amsterdam.
Karlin, C., and Julien, M. (1994). Prehistoric technology: A cognitive science? In Renfrew, C., and Zubrow, E. (eds.), The Ancient Mind, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 152–164.
Kay, R. F., Cartmill, M., and Balow, M. (1998). The hypoglossal canal and the origin of human vocal behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 95: 5417–5419.
Keyser, A., Menter, C. G., Moggi-Cecchi, J., Pickering, T. R., and Berger, L. R. (2000). Drimolen: A new hominid-bearing site in Gauteng, South Africa. South African Journal of Science 96: 193–197.
Klein, R. G. (1999). The Human Career, 2nd edn., University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Klein, R. G. (2000). Archaeology and the evolution of human behavior. Evolution of Anthropology 9: 17–36.
Knight, C., Power, C., and Watts, I. (1995). The human symbolic revolution: A Darwinian account. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 5(1): 75–114.
Kolen, J. (1999). Hominids without homes: On the nature of Middle Palaeolithic settlement in Europe. In Roebroeks, W., and Gamble, C. (eds.), The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe, University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherland, pp. 139–175.
Kuhn, T. (1979). Metaphor in science. In Orton, A. (ed.), Metaphor and Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 409–419.
Laitman, J. T., and Reidenberg, J. S. (1988). Advances in understanding the relationship between the skull base and larynx with comments on the origins of speech. Human Evolution 3: 99–109.
Laitman, J. T., Reidenberg, J. S., and Gannon, P. J. (1992) Fossil skulls and hominid vocal tracts: New approaches to charting the evolution of human speech. In Wind, J., Chiarelli, B., Bichakjian, B., Nocentini, A., and Jonker, A. (eds.), Language Origin: A Multidisciplinary Approach, Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 395–407.
Laitman, J. T., Reidenberg, J. S., Gannon, P. J., Johansson, B., Landahl, K., and LeMay, M. (1975). The language capability of Neanderthal man. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 42: 9–14.
Lakarra, J. A (1995a). Origins and relatives of the Basque language: Review of the evidence. In Hualde, J. I., Lakarra, J. A., and Trask, L. (eds.), Towards a History of Basque Language, John Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 65–99.
Lakarra, J. A. (1995b). Reconstructing the root in Pre-Proto-Basque. In Hualde, J. I., Lakarra, J. A., and Trask, L. (eds.), Towards a History of Basque language, John Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 189–206.
Lakarra, J. A (1997a). Euskararen historia eta filologia XX. mendearen akaburantz. Anuario del Seminario de Filología Vasca, Julio de Urquijo 31(2): 425–445.
Lakarra, J. A. (1997b). Gogoetak aitzineuskararen berreraiketaz: konparaketa eta barneberreraiketa. Anuario del Seminario de Filología Vasca, Julio de Urquijo 31(2): 537–616.
Lawson, G., and d'Errico, F. (in press). Microscopic, experimental and theoretical re-assessment of Upper Palaeolithic bird-bone pipes from Isturitz, France: Ergonomics of design, systems of notation and the origins of musical traditions (first results). Paper presented at the 2nd International Music Congress: The Archaeology of Early Sound, Blankenburg/Harz.
Lawson, G., Scarre, C., Cross, I., and Hills, C. (1997). Mounds, megaliths, music and mind: Some thoughts on the acoustical properties and purposes of archaeological spaces. Archaeological Review from Cambridge 15(1): 111–134.
Leroi-Gourhan, A. (1964–1965). Le Geste et la Parole. 2 Vols., Albin Michel, Paris.
Leroi-Gourhan, A. (1982). La grotte du Renne à Arcy-sur-Cure. In Les habitats du Paléolithique supérieur, Roanne-Villerest, France, pp. 35-40.
Lieberman, P. (1990). The Kebara hyoid: What can it tell us about the evolution of the hominid vocal tract? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 8l: 254.
Lieberman, P., and Crelin, E. S. (1973). On the speech of Neanderthal man. Linguistic Enquiries 1: 203–223.
Lieberman, P., Crelin, E. S., and Klatt, D. H. (1972). Phonetic ability and related anatomy of the new-born and adult human, Neandertal man and the chimpanzee. American Journal of Anthropology 74: 287–307.
Lieberman, D. E., and McCarthy, R. C. (1999). The ontogeny of the cranial base angulation in humans and chimpanzees and its implication for reconstructing pharyngeal dimensions. Journal of Human Evolution 36: 487–517.
Longuet-Higgins, C. (1996). Issues in mental development. In Mellars, P., and Gibson, K. (eds.), Modelling the Early Human Mind, McDonald Institute, Cambridge, pp. 153–157.
Lorblanchet, M. (1999). La naissance de l'art, Errance, Paris.
MacClancy, J., (1993). Biological Basques, Sociologically Speaking. In Malcolm, Ch. (ed.), Social and Biological Aspects of Ethnicity, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 92–129.
Marshack, A. (1964). Lunar notation on Upper Paleolithic remains. Science 184: 28–46.
Marshack, A. (1970). Notation dans les gravures du Paléolithique superieur. Nouvelles méthodes d'analyse, Publications de l'Institut de Préhistoire de l'Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France.
Marshack, A. (1972a). Cognitive aspects of Upper Paleolithic engraving. Current Anthropology 13(34): 445–477.
Marshack, A. (1972b). The Roots of Civilisation, MacGraw Hill, New York.
Marshack, A. (1972c). Upper Paleolithic notation and symbol. Science 178: 817–828.
Marshack, A. (1976). Some implications of Paleolithic symbolic evidence for the origin of language. Current Anthropology 17(2): 276–282.
Marshack, A. (1988). Paleolithic calendar. In Tattersal, I., Delson, E., and van Couvering, J. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Human Evolution and Prehistory, Garland, New York, pp. 419–420.
Marshack, A. (1991). The Taï plaque and calendrical notation in the Upper Palaeolithic. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 1(1): 25–61.
Marshack, A. (1995). A Middle Paleolithic symbolic composition from the Golan Heights: The earliest known depictive image. Current Anthropology 37(2): 356–365.
Martin, H. (1907–1910). Recherches sur l'évolution du Moustérien dans le gisement de la Quina (Charente), industrie osseuse 1, Schleicher Frères, Paris.
Matisoff, J. (1990). On megalocomparison. Language 66: 106–120.
Maureille, B. (1994). La face chez Homo erectus et Homo sapiens: recherche sur la variabilité morphologique et métrique, PhD Dissertation, Bordeaux University, Bordeaux, France.
Maureille, B. (2002a). A lost Neanderthal neonate found. Nature 419: 33–34.
Maureille, B. (2002b). La redécouverte du nouveau-né néandertalien Le Moustier 2. Paléo 14: 221–238.
Maureille, B., and Soressi, M. (2000). A propos de la position chronostratigraphique de l'enfant du Pech de l'Azé I (Commune de Carsac, Dordogne): la résurrection du fantôme. Paléo 12: 339–352.
Maureille, B., and Van Peer, P. (1998). Une donnée peu connue sur la sépulture du premier adulte de La Ferrassie (Savignac de Miremont, Dordogne). Paléo 10: 291–302.
McBrearty, S. (2001). The Middle Pleistocene of East Africa. In Barham, L., and Robson-Brown, K. (eds.), Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene, Western Academic and Specialist Press, Bristol, pp. 81–92.
McBrearty, S., and Brooks, A. S. (2000). The revolution that wasn't: A new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 39: 453–563.
McBurney, C. B. M. (1967). The Haua Fteah (Cyrenaica) and the Stone Age of the south-east Mediterranean, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
McDermott, F., Grün, R., Stringer, C. B., and Hawkesworth, C. J. (1993). Mass-spectrometric U-series dates for Israeli Neanderthal/early modern hominid sites. Nature 363: 252–255.
McPherron, S. P. (2000). Handaxes as a measure of mental capabilites of early hominids. Journal of Archaeological Science 27: 655–663.
Megaw, J. V. S. (1960). Penny whistles and prehistory. Antiquity 34: 6–13.
Megaw, J. V. S. (1968). Problems and non-problems in palaeo-organology: A musical miscellany. In Coles, J. M., and Simpson, D. D. A. (eds.), Studies in Ancient Europe: Essays Presented to Stuart Piggott, Leicester University Press, Leicester, England, pp. 333–358.
Mellars, P. (1973). The character of the Middle–Upper Palaeolithic transition in south-west France. In Renfrew, C. (ed.), The Explanation of Culture Change, Duckworth, London, pp. 255–276.
Mellars, P. (1996a). The Neandertal Legacy: An Archaeological Perspective from Western Europe, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
Mellars, P. (1996b). Symbolism, language, and the Neanderthal mind. In Mellars, P., and Gibson, K. (eds.), Modelling the Early Human Mind, McDonald Institute, Cambridge, pp. 15–32.
Mellars, P. (1998). Neandertals, modern humans and the archaeological evidence for language. In Jablonski, N. G., and Aiello, L. C. (eds.), The Origin and Diversification of Language. Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences, Vol. 24, San Francisco, pp. 89–115.
Mellars, P. (1999). Châtelperronian chronology and the case for Neandertal/modern human “acculturation” in western Europe. Current Anthropology 40(3): 341–350.
Mercier, N., Valladas, H., Froget, L., Joron, J. L., and Ronen, A. (2000). Datation par la thermoluminescence de la base du gisement paléolithique de Tabun (Mont Carmel, Israël). Comptes Rendues de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris 330: 731–738.
Miller, G. H., Beaumont, P. B., Deacon, H. J., Brooks, A. S., Hare, P. E., and Jull, A. J. T. (1999). Earliest modern humans in southern Africa dated by isoleucine epimerization in ostrich eggshell. Quaternary Science Reviews 18: 1537–1548.
Mithen, S. (1994). From domain specific to generalized intelligence: A cognitive interpretation of the Middle/Upper Palaeolihtic transition. In Renfrew, C., and Zubrow, E. (eds.), The Ancient Mind, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 29–39.
Mithen, S. (1996a). Domain-specific intelligence and the Neanderthal mind. In Mellars, P., and Gibson, K. (eds.), Modelling the Early Human Mind, McDonald Institute, Cambridge, pp. 217–229.
Mithen, S. (1996b). The Prehistory of the Mind: A Search for the Origins of Art, Religion and Science, Thames and Hudson, London.
Mitxelena, K. (1964). Sobre el pasado de la lengua vasca, Auñamendi, San Sebastian.
Mitxelena, K. (1985). Lengua e Historia, Paraninfo, Madrid.
Mulvaney, D. J., and Kamminga, J. (1999). Prehistory of Australia, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, Australia.
Newell, R. R., Kielman, D., Constandse-Westermann, T. S., Van Der Sanden, W. A. B., and Van Gijn, A. (1990). An Inquiry into the Ethnic Resolution of Mesolithic Regional Groups. The Study of Their Decorative Ornaments in Time and Space, Brill, Leiden, The Netherland.
Noble, W., and Davidson, I. (1991). The evolutionary emergence of modern human behaviour: Language and its archaeology. Man 26: 223–253.
Noble, W., and Davidson, I. (1996). Human Evolution, Language and Mind: A Psychological and Archaeological Inquiry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Nowell, A., d'Errico, F., and Hovers, E. (2001). The origin of symbolism in the Near East: Implications for the evolution of human cognition. Poster presented at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society of American Archaeology, New Orleans, LA.
Oakley, K., Andrews, P., Keeley, L., and Clark, J. D. (1977). A reappraisal of the Clacton spearpoint. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 43: 13–30.
Ogawa, T., Kamiya, T., Sakai, S., and Hosokawa, H. (1970). Some observations on the endocranial cast of the Amud man. In Suzuki, H., and Takai, F. (eds.), The Amud Man, University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 411–424.
Pelcin, A. (1994). A geological explanation for the Berekhat Ram figurine. Current Anthropology 35: 674–675.
Pelegrin, J. (1990). Prehistoric lithic technology: Some aspects of research. Archaeological Review from Cambridge 9: 116–125.
Perlès, C. (1992). In search of lithic strategies. In Gardin, J. C., and Peebles, C. S. (eds.), Representations in Archaeology, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 222–247.
Pettitt, P. B., and Trinkaus, E. (2000). Direct radiocarbon dating of the Brno 2 Gravettian human remains. Anthropologie 38(2): 149–150.
Peyrony, D. (1921). Les Moustériens inhumaient-ils leurs morts? Ribes et Cie, Périgueux.
Peyrony, D. (1930). Le Moustier, ses gisements, ses industries, ses couches géologiques. Revue d'Anthropologie 40: 48–76, 155–176.
Peyrony, D., (1934). La Ferrassie, Moustérien, Périgordien, Aurignacien, Leroux, Paris.
Piaget, J. (1947). La psychologie de l'Intelligence, Armand Colin, Paris.
Piaget, J. (1976). Le comportement, moteur de l'évolution, Gallimard, Paris.
Pigeot, N. (1991). Réflexions sur l'histoire technique de l'homme: de l'évolution cognitive à l'évolution culturelle. Paléo 3: 167–200.
Ray, D. J. (1975). The Eskimos of Bering Strait 1650–1898, University of Washington Press, Seattle.
Renfrew, C. (1996). The sapient behaviour paradox: How to test for potential? In Mellars, P., and Gibson, K. (eds.), Modelling the Early Human Mind, McDonald Institute, Cambridge, pp. 11–14.
Renfrew, C. (2000). At the edge of knowability: towards a prehistory of languages. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 10(1): 7–34.
Reznikoff, I. (1995). On the sound dimension of prehistoric painted caves and rocks. In Tarasti, E. (ed.), Musical Signification: Essays in the Semiotic Theory and Analysis of Music. Approaches to Semiotics series, Vol. 121, Berlin, pp. 541–557.
Reznikoff, I., and Dauvois, M. (1988). La dimension sonore des grottes ornées. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française 85(8): 238–246.
Richards, M., Côrte-Real, H., Forster, P., Macaulay, V., Wilkinson-Herbots, H., Demaine, A., Papiha, S., Hedges, R., Bandelt, H.-J., and Sykes, B. (1996). Paleolithic and Neolithic lineages in the European mitochondrial gene pool. American Journal of Human Genetics 59: 185–203.
Richards, M. P., Pettitt, P. B., Stiner, M. C., and Trinkaus, E. (2001). Stable isotope evidence for increasing dietary breadth in the European mid-Upper Paleolithic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98(11): 6528–6532.
Robinson, J. (1992). Not counting on Marshack: A reassessment of the work of Alexander Marshack on notation in the Upper Palaeolithic. Journal of Mediterranean Studies 1: 1–16.
Roche, H., Delagnes, A., Brugal, J.-P., Feibel, C., Kibunjia, M., Mourre, V., and Texier, P.-J. (1999). Early hominid stone tool production and technical skill 2.34 Myr ago in West Turkana, Kenya. Nature 399: 57–60.
Roebroeks, W., Kolen, J., and Rensink, E. (1988). Planning depth, anticipation and the organization of Middle Paleolithic technology: The “Archaic Natives” meet Eve's descendants. Helinium 28: 17–34.
Rosenfeld, A. (1972). Review of Notation dans les gravures du Paléolithique supérieur. Antiquity 36: 317–319.
Ruhlen, M. (1994). On the Origin of Languages: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue, Stanford University Press, Stanford, UK.
Ruhlen, M. (1996). On the Origin of Languages: Studies in Linguistic Taxonomy, Wiley, New York.
Russell, J. (1996). Development and evolution of the symbolic function: The role of working memory. In Mellars, P., and Gibson, K. (eds.), Modelling the Early Human Mind, McDonald Institute, Cambridge, pp. 159–170.
Sachs, C. (1929). Geist und Werden der Musikinstrumente, Hilversum, Berlin.
Sackett, J. R. (1982). Approaches to style in lithic archaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1: 59–112.
Schepartz, L. A. (1993). Language and modern human origins. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 36: 91–126.
Schlangler, N. (1994). Mindful technology: Unleashing the chaîne opératoire for an archaeology of mind. In Renfrew, C., and Zubrow, E. (eds.), The Ancient Mind, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 143–151.
Schlanger, N. (1996). Understanding Levallois: Lithic technology and cognitive archaeology. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 6: 231–254.
Schneider, M. (1957). Primitive music. In The New Oxford History of Music, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 2.
Schuhmacher, W. W., and Seto, F. (1993) Austronesian and Dene-Basque (Dene-Caucasian). Fontes Linguae Vasconum 62: 345–376.
Semendeferi, K., and Damasio, H. (2000). The brain and its anatomical subdivision using magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Human Evolution 38: 317–332.
Semino, O., Passarino, G., Oefner, P. J., Lin, A. A., Arbuzova, S., Beckman, L. E., De, G., Francalacci, P., Limborska, S., Kouvatsi, A., Marcikiæ, M., Primorac, D., Santachiara-Benerecetti, S. A., Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., and Underhill, P. A. (2000). The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: A Y chromosome perspective. Science 290: 1155–1159.
Shea, J. J. (1988). Spear points from the Middle Paleolithic of the Levant. Journal of Field Archaeology 15: 441–450.
Shea, J. J., (1997). Middle Paleolithic spear point technology. In Knecht, H. (ed.), Projectile Technology, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 79–106.
Shea, J. J., (1998). Neandertal and early modern human behavioral variability: A regional-scale approach to lithic evidence for hunting in the Levantine Mousterian. Current Anthropology 39: S45–S78.
Shea, J. J., (2001). The Middle Paleolithic: Early modern humans and Neandertals in the Levant. Near Eastern Archaeology 64(1/2): 38–64.
Shipman, P. (1989). Altered bones from Olduvai Gorge: Techniques, problems and implications of their recognition. In Bonnichsen, R., and Sorg, M. H. (eds.), Bone Modification, Center for the Study of the First Americans, Orono, Maine, France, pp. 317–334.
Simek, J. F. (1992). Neanderthal cognition and the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition. In Bräuer, G., and Smith, F. H. (eds.), Continuity or Replacement: Controversy in Homo sapiens Evolution, Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherland, pp. 231–45.
Singer, R., and Wymer, J. (1982). The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa, Chicago University Press, Chicago.
Soressi, M. (2002). Le Moustérien de tradition acheuléenne du sud-ouest de la France. Discussion sur la signification du faciès à partir de l'étude comparée de quatre sites. Pechde-l'Azé I, Le Moustier, La Rochette et la Grotte XVI. Unpublished PhD thesis, University Bordeaux I, Bordeaux.
Soressi, M., and Hays, M. A. (2003). Manufacture, transport and use of Mousterian bifaces. A case study from the Perigord (France). In Soressi, M., and Dibble, H. L. (eds.), Multiple Approaches to the Study of Bifacial Technology, Publication of The University of Pennsylvania Museum Press, Philadelphia, University Museum Monograph 115, pp. 125–147.
Stewart, T. D. (1962). Neanderthal cervical vertebrae. With special attention to the Shanidar Neanderthal from Iraq. Folia Primatologica 1: 130–154.
Strathern, A., and Strathern, M. (1971). Self Decoration in Mount Hagen, Duckworth, London.
Strauss, W. L., and Cave, A. J. E. (1957). Pathology and posture of Neanderthal Man. Quarterly Review of Biology 32: 348–363.
Stringer, C., and Gamble, C. (1993). In Search of the Neandertals, Thames and Hudson, London.
Thieme, H. (1997). Lower Paleolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature 385: 769–771.
Thieme, H. (2000). Lower Palaeolithic hunting weapons from Schöningen, Germany—The oldest spears in the World. Acta Anthropologica Sinica 19: S136–S143.
Thieme, H., and Veil, S. (1985). Neue Untersuchungen zum eemzeitlichen Elefanten-Jagdplatz Leheringen, Ldkr. Verden. Die Kunde 36: 11–58.
Tillier, A.-M. (1995). Paléoanthropologie et archéologie funéraire au Levant méditerranéen durant le Paléolithique moyen. Le cas des sujets non adultes. Paléorient 21(2): 63–77.
Tillier, A.-M., and Arensburg, B. (2000). The speech capability of Neandertals: An obsolete question. Prehistoria 1: 55–62.
Tillier, A.-M., Arensburg, B., Vandermeersch, B., and Rak, Y. (1991). L'apport de Kébara à la palethnologie funéraire des Néandertaliens du Proche-Orient. In Bar-Yosef, O., and Vandermeersch, B. (eds.), Le squelette moustérien de Kébara 2, CNRS, Paris, pp. 89–95.
Tobias, P. V. (1987). The brain of Homo habilis: A new level of organisation in cerebral evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 16(7/8): 741–761.
Toth, N., and Schick, K. (1993). Early stone industries and inferences regarding language and cognition. In Gibson, G., and Ingold, T. (eds.), Tools, Language and Cognition in Human Evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 346–362.
Torroni, A., Bandelt, H.-J., D'Urbano, L., Lahermo, P., Moral, P., Sellitto, D., Rengo, C., Forster P., Savontaus, M.-L., Bonné-Tamir, B. and Scozzari, R. (1998). mtDNA analysis reveals a major late Paleolithic population expansion from southwestern to northeastern Europe. American Journal of Human Genetics 62: 1137–1152.
Tovar, A. (1961). El método léxico-estadístico y su aplicación a las relaciones del vascuence. Boletín de la Real Sociedad Bascongada de los Amigos del País 17: 249–281.
Trask, R. L. (1997). The History of Basque, Routledge, London.
Turk, I. (ed.) (1997). Mousterian “Bone Flute”? and Other Finds from Divje Babe I Cave Site in Slovenia. Institut za Arhaeologijo, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
Turk, I., Dirjec, J., and Kavur, B. (1995). Ali so v Sloveniji nasli najstarejse glasbilo? (The oldest musical instrument in Europe discovered in Slovenia?). Razprave IV. razreda SAZU 36: 287-293.
Vandermeersch, B. (1993). Appendix. In Lévêque, F., Backer, A. M., and Guilbaud, M. (eds), Context of a late Neandertal. Monographs in World Archaeology, Vol. 16, pp. 129–131.
Vandermeersch, B. (1995). Le problème des premières sépultures. In GVEP, La mort, passé, présent, conditionnel, GVEP, La Roche-sur-Yon, France, pp. 17–24.
Vanhaeren, M. (2002). Les fonctions de la parure au Paléolithique supérieur: de l'individu à l'unité culturelle. Unpublished PhD thesis, University Bordeaux I, Bordeaux.
Vanhaeren, M., and d'Errico, F. (2001). La parure de l'enfant de La Madeleine (fouilles Peyrony). Un nouveau regard sur l'enfance au Paléolithique supérieur. Paléo 13: 201–240.
Vanhaeren, M., and d'Errico, F. (2002). Continuity and innovation in the Middle and Early Upper Palaeolithic: Personal ornaments and grave goods. First results. Paper presented at the International Round table. The Definition of the Aurignacian, 28–30 June 2002, Lisbon.
Vanhaeren, M., and d'Errico, F. (2003). The personal ornaments associated with the burial. In Zilhão, J. and sTrinkaus, E. (eds.), Portrait of the Artist as a Child. The Gravettian Human Skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho and its Archeological Context. Trabalhos de Arqueologia, Vol. 22, pp. 154–186.
Vanhaeren, M., and d'Errico, F. (in press). Childhood in the Epipaleolithic. What do personal ornaments associated with burials tell us? In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on the Mesolithic in Europe. Oxbow Monographs, Oxford.
Vermeersch, P. M., Gijselings, G., and Paulissen, E. (1984). Discovery of the Nazlet Khater man, Upper Egypt. Journal of Human Evolution 13: 281–286.
Vermeersch, P. M., Paulissen, E., Stokes, S., Charlier, C., Van Peer, Ph., Stringer, C. B., and Lislay, W. (1998). A Middle Palaeolithic burial of a modern human at Taramsa Hill, Egypt. Antiquity 72: 475–484.
Villa, P., and d'Errico, F. (2001). Bone and ivory points in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic of Europe. Journal of Human Evolution 41: 69–112.
Vogel, J. C. (2000). Radiometric dates for the Middle Stone Age in South Africa. In Tobias, P. V., Raath, M. A., Moggi-Cecchi, J., and Doyle, G. A. (eds.). Humanity—From African Naissance to Coming Millennia, Firenze University Press, Florence, Italy.
Volman, T. P. (1984). Early prehistory of southern Africa. In Klein, R. G. (ed.), Southern African Prehistory and Palaeoenvironments, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 169–220.
Wells, R. S., Yuldasheva, N., Ruzibakiev, R., Underhill, P. A., Evseeva, I., Blue-Smith, J., Jin, L., Su, B., Pitchappan, R., Shanmugalakshmi, S., Balakrishnan, K., Read, M., Pearson, N., Zerjal, T., Webster, M. T., Zholoshvili, I., Jamarjashvili, E., Gambarov, S., Nikbin, B., Dostiev, A., Aknazarov, O., Zalloua, P., Tsoy, I., Kitaev, M., Mirrakhimov, M., Chariev, A., and Bodmer, W. F. (2001). The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98(18): 10244–10249.
White, R. (1982). The manipulation of burins in incision and notation. Canadian Journal of Anthropology 2(2): 129–135.
White, R. (1992). Beyond art: Towards an understanding of the origins of material representation in Europe. Annual Review of Anthropology 21: 537–564.
Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., Tutin, C. E. G., Wrangham, R. W., and Boesch, C. (1999). Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature 399: 682–685.
Wiessner, P. (1983). Style and social information in Kalahari San projectile points. American Antiquity 48: 253–276.
Wurz, S. (2000). The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River, South Africa, PhD Dissertation, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa.
Wynn, T. G. (1979). The intelligence of later Acheulean hominids. Man 14: 371–391.
Wynn, T. G. (1985). Piaget, stone tools and the evolution of human intelligence. World Archaeology 17: 32.
Wynn, T. G. (1991). Tools, grammar, and the archaeology of cognition. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 1(2): 191–206.
Wynn, T. G. (1993). Two developments in the mind of early Homo. Journal of Anthropolgical Archaeology 12: 299–322.
Wynn, T. C. (1998). Did Homo erectus speak? Cambridge Archaeological Journal 8(1): 78–81.
Yellen, J. E. (1998). Barbed bone points: Tradition and continuity in Saharan and sub-Saharan Africa. African Archaeological Review 15: 173–198.
Yellen, J. E., Brooks, A. S., Cornelissen, E., Mehlman, M., and Stewart, K. (1995). A Middle Stone Age worked bone Industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire. Science 268: 553–556.
Zilhão, J. (2001). Anatomically Archaic, Behaviorally Modern: The Last Neanderthals and Their Destiny, Amsterdams Archeologisch Centrum, Amsterdam.
Zilhão, J., and d'Errico, F. (1999a). Reply to Mellars, Straus and Otte. Current Anthropology 40(3): 355–364.
Zilhão, J., and d'Errico, F. (1999b). The chronology and taphonomy of the earliest Aurignacian and its implications for the understanding of Neandertal extinction. Journal of World Prehistory 13(1): 1–68.
Zilhão, J., and d'Errico, F. (in press). The chronology of the Aurignacian and Transitional technocomplexes. Where do we stand? In Zilhão, J., and d'Errico, F. (eds.). The Chronology of the Aurignacian and of the Transitional Technocomplexes. Dating, Stratigraphies, Cultural Implications. Trabalhos de Arqueologia, Lisbon.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
d'Errico, F., Henshilwood, C., Lawson, G. et al. Archaeological Evidence for the Emergence of Language, Symbolism, and Music–An Alternative Multidisciplinary Perspective. Journal of World Prehistory 17, 1–70 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023980201043
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023980201043