Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Is It a Challenge or a Threat? A Dual-Process Model of Teachers' Cognition and Appraisal Processes During Conceptual Change

  • Published:
Educational Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

What accounts for well-meaning teachers' lack of implementation of subject-matter reforms, such as making one's classroom centered on problem solving, even when they positively value the reform and believe they are implementing it in their classrooms? Teachers' subject-matter beliefs may constrain them from adopting practices that conflict with those beliefs. The purpose of this article is to propose a theoretical model, the Cognitive–Affective Model of Conceptual Change, that integrates key findings from overly cognitive models of belief change with motivational and affective factors found in social psychology theory and research. This model explains why teachers' beliefs about instruction are resistant to reforms that challenge their existing beliefs, and it provides a conceptual framework within which to devise a better means of advancing teachers' beliefs and supporting them in the process of implementation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.

References

  • Ashton, P. T., and Gregoire, M. (in press). At the heart of teaching: The role of emotion in changing teachers' beliefs. In: Raths, J., and McAninch, A. (eds.), Advances in Teacher Education (Vol. 6), Ablex, Norwood, NJ.

  • Ashton, P. T., and Webb, R. B. (1986). Making a Difference: Teachers' Sense of Efficacy and Student Achievement, Longman, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball, D. L. (1990). Reflections and deflections of policy: The case of Carol Turner. Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 12: 247-259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. Am. Psychol. 44: 1175-1184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, W. H. Freeman, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borko, H., Davinroy, K. H., Blien, C. L., and Cumbo, K. B. (2000). Exploring and supporting teacher change: Two third-grade teachers' experiences in a mathematics and literacy staff development project. Elem. Sch. J. 100: 273-306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borko, H., and Putnam, R. T. (1996). Learning to teach. In: Berliner, D. C., and Calfee, R. C. (eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology, Macmillan, New York, pp. 673-708.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brosnan, P. A., Edwards, T., and Erickson, D. (1996). An exploration of change in teachers' beliefs and practices during implementation of mathematics standards. Focus Learn. Probl. Math. 18: 35-53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchmann, M., and Schwille, J. (1983). Education: The overcoming of experience. Am. J. Educ. 92: 30-51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calderhead, J. (1996). Teachers: Beliefs and knowledge. In: Handbook of Educational Psychology, Macmillan Library Reference, New York, pp. 709-725.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaiken, S. (1980). Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 39: 752-766.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaiken, S., Liberman, A., and Eagly, A. H. (1989). Heuristic and systematic information processing within and beyond the persuasion context. In: Uleman, J. S., and Bargh, J. A. (eds.), Unintended Thought, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 212-252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chinn, C. A., and Brewer, W. F. (1993). The role of anomalous data in knowledge acquisition: A theoretical framework and implications for science instruction. Rev. Educ. Res. 63: 1-49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cobb, P., Wood, T., Yackel, E., and McNeal, B. (1992). Characteristics of classroom mathematics traditions: An interactional analysis. Am. Educ. Res. J. 29: 573-604.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, D. K. (1990). A revolution in one classroom: The case of Mrs. Oublier. Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 12: 311-329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, D. K., and Ball, D. L. (1990a). Policy and practice: An overview. Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 12: 233-239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, D. K., and Ball, D. L. (1990b). Relations between policy and practice: A commentary. Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 12: 331-338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooney, T. J., and Shealy, B. E. (1997). On understanding the structure of teachers' beliefs and their relationship to change. In: Fennema, E., and Nelson, B. S. (eds.), Mathematics Teachers in Transition, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 87-109.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Corte, E., Greer, B., and Verschaffel, L. (1996). Mathematics teaching and instruction. In: Berliner, D. C., and Calfee, R. C. (eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology, Macmillan, New York, pp. 491-549.

    Google Scholar 

  • diSessa, A. A., and Sherin, B. L. (1998). What changes in conceptual change? Int. J. Sci. Educ. 20: 1155-1191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dole, J. A., and Sinatra, G. M. (1998). Reconceptualizing change in the cognitive construction of knowledge. Educ. Psychol. 33: 109-128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., and Chaiken, S. (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Fort Worth, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, S., and Pacini, R. (1999). Some basic issues regarding dual-process theories from the perspective of cognitive–experiential self-theory. In: Chaiken, S., and Trope, Y. (eds.), Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 462-482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ernest, P. (1989). The impact of beliefs on the teaching of mathematics. In: Ernest, P. (ed.), Mathematics Teaching: The State of the Art, Falmer Press, New York, pp. 249-254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fazio, R. H. (1986). How do attitudes guide behavior? In: Sorrentino, R. M., and Higgins, E. T. (eds.), Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: Foundations of Social Behavior, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 204-243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennema, E., Carpenter, T. P., Franke, M. L., Levi, L., Jacobs, V. R., and Empson, S. (1996). A longitudinal study of learning to use children's thinking in mathematics instruction. J. Res. Math. Educ. 27: 403-434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennema, E., and Franke, M. L. (1992). Teachers' knowledge and its impact. In: Grouws, D. A. (ed.), Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning, Macmillan, New York, pp. 147-164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Row, Peterson, Evanston, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L., and Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. J. Abnorm. Soc. Psychol. 58: 203-210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J. H., Miller, P. H., and Miller, S. A. (1993). Cognitive Development (3rd Ed.), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franke, M. L., Carpenter, T., Fennema, E., Ansell, E., and Behrend, J. (1998). Understanding teachers' self-sustaining, generative change in the context of professional development. Teach. Teacher Educ. 14: 67-80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frykholm, J. A. (1996). Preservice teachers in mathematics: Struggling with the standards. Teach. Teacher Educ. 12: 665-681.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, S. G., Peterson, P. L., and Shojgreen-Downer, A. (1996). Learning to teach mathematics in the context of systemic reform. Am. Educ. Res. J. 33: 509-541.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregoire, M. (April 1999). Paradoxes and Paradigms in an Eighth Grade Pre-Algebra Class: A Case Study of a “Good” Math Teacher. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED431600).

  • Gregoire, M. (2002). Effects of Augmented Activation, Refutational Text, Efficacy Beliefs, Epistemological Beliefs, and Systematic Processing on Conceptual Change. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville.

  • Guzzetti, B. J. (2000). Learning counter-intuitive science concepts: What have we learned from over a decade of research? Read. Writ. Q. 16: 89-98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hargreaves, A. (1998). The emotional practice of teaching. Teach. Teacher Educ. 14: 835-854.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heider, F. (1946). Attitudes and cognitive organization. J. Psychol. 21: 107-112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hersh, R. (1986). Some proposals for reviving the philosophy of mathematics. In: Tymoczko, T. (ed.), New Directions in the Philosophy of Mathematics, Birkhäuser, Boston, pp. 9-28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiebert, J., and Carpenter, T. P. (1992). Learning and teaching with understanding. In: Grouws, D. A. (ed.), Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning, Macmillan, New York, pp. 65-97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiebert, J., Carpenter, T., Fennema, E., Fuson, K., Human, P., and Murray, H. (1996). Problem solving as a basis for reform in curriculum and instruction: The case of mathematics. Educ. Res. 25(4): 12-21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, B. K., and Pintrich, P. R. (1997). The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning. Rev. Educ. Res. 67: 88-140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt-Reynolds, D. (2000). What does the teacher do? Constructivist pedagogies and prospective teachers' beliefs about the role of a teacher. Teach. Teacher Educ. 16: 21-32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivey, K. M. C. (1996). Mechanistic and organic: Dual cultures in a mathematics classroom. J. Res. Dev. Educ. 29: 141-151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jerusalem, M., and Schwarzer, R. (1992). Self-efficacy as a resource factor in stress appraisal processes. In: Schwarzer, R. (ed.), Self-Efficacy: Thought Control of Action, Hemisphere, Washington, DC, pp. 195-213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, D. M. (1992). Implications of research on teacher belief. Educ. Psychol. 27: 65-90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, J. R., and Woodhouse, R. A. (1994). Measuring and predicting depth of processing in learning. Alberta J. Educ. Res. 40: 147-161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitcher, P. (1986). Mathematical change and scientific change. In: Tymoczko, T. (ed.), New Directions in the Philosophy of Mathematics, Birkhäuser, Boston, pp. 215-242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, N. F., and Peterson, P. L. (1995). Teachers' interpretations of “CGI” after four years: Meanings and practices. J. Res. Math. Educ. 26: 40-65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakatos, I. (1986). A renaissance of empiricism in the recent philosophy of mathematics? In: Tymoczko, T. (ed.), New Directions in the Philosophy of Mathematics, Birkhäuser, Boston, pp. 29-48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lanier, J. E., and Little, J. W. (1986). Research on teacher education. In: Wittrock, M. (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching, Macmillan, New York, pp. 527-569.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on a cognitive–motivational–relational theory of emotion. Am. Psychol. 46: 819-834.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., and Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping, Springer, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lerman, S. (1983). Problem-solving or knowledge-centred: The influence of philosophy on mathematics teaching. Int. J. Math. Educ. Sci. Technol. 14: 59-66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lerman, S. (1998). Cultural perspectives on mathematics and mathematics teaching and learning. In: Seeger, F., Voigt, J., and Waschesio, U. (eds.), The Culture of the Mathematics Classroom, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 290-307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Limon, M., and Mason, L. (2002). Reconsidering Conceptual Change: Issues in Theory and Practice, Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lubinski, C. A., and Jaberg, P. A. (1997). Teacher change and mathematics K-4: Developing a theoretical perspective. In: Fennema, E., and Nelson, B. S. (eds.), Mathematics Teachers in Transition, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 223-254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackie, D. M., and Worth, L. T. (1991). Feeling good, but not thinking straight: The impact of positive mood on persuasion. In: Forgas, J. P. (ed.), Emotion and Social Judgments, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, pp. 201-219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maheswaran, D., and Chaiken, S. (1991). Promoting systematic processing in low-motivation settings: Effect of incongruent information on processing and judgment. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 61: 13-25.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKinney, M., Sexton, T., and Meyerson, M. J. (1999). Validating the efficacy-based change model. Teach. Teacher Educ. 15: 471-485.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989). Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1991). Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1995). Assessment Standards for School Mathematics, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nespor, J. (1987). The role of beliefs in the practice of teaching. J. Curriculum Stud. 19: 317-328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers' beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Rev. Educ. Res. 62: 307-332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Rev. Educ. Res. 66: 543-578.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patrick, H., and Pintrich, P. R. (2001). Conceptual change in teachers' intuitive conceptions of learning, motivation, and instruction: The role of motivational and epistemological beliefs. In: Torff, B., and Sternberg, R. J. (eds.), Understanding and Teaching the Intuitive Mind: Student and Teacher Learning, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 117-143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, P. L. (1990). The California Study of Elementary Mathematics. Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 12: 241-245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., Sedikides, C., and Strathman, A. J. (1988). Affect and persuasion: A contemporary perspective. Am. Behav. Sci. 31: 355-371.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petty, R. E., and Wegener, D. T. (1999). The elaboration likelihood model: Current status and controversies. In: Chaiken, S., and Trope, Y. (eds.), Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 41-72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1977). The Development of Thought: Equilibration of Cognitive Structures (Rosin, A.,Trans.), Viking Press, New York. (Original work published 1975)

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1980). Adaptation and Intelligence: Organic Selection and Phenocopy (Eames, S.,Trans.), University of Chicago Press, Chicago. (Original work published 1974)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R. (1990). Implications of psychological research on student learning and college teaching for teacher education. In: Houston, W. R., Haberman, M., and Sikula, J. (eds.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education, Macmillan, New York, pp. 826-857.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R. (1999). Motivational beliefs as resources for and constraints on conceptual change. In: Schnotz, W., Vosniadou, S., and Carretero, M. (eds.), New Perspectives on Conceptual Change, Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK, pp. 33-50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., and Boyle, R. A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Rev. Educ. Res. 63: 167-199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., and Gertzog, W. (1982). Accommodation of scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Sci. Educ. 66: 211-227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Qian, G., and Alvermann, D. (1995). Role of epistemological beliefs and learned helplessness in secondary school students' learning science concepts from text. J. Educ. Psychol. 87: 282-292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, V., and Placier, P. (2001). Teacher change. In: Richardson, V. (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (4th Ed.), American Educational Research Association, Washington, DC, pp. 905-947.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rickard, A. (1995). Teaching with problem-oriented curricula: A case study of middle-school mathematics instruction. J. Exp. Educ. 64: 29-40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rukavina, I., and Daneman, M. (1996). Integration and its effect on acquiring knowledge about competing scientific theories for text. J. Educ. Psychol. 88: 272-287.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rust, F. O. (1994). The first year of teaching: It's not what they expected. Teach. Teacher Educ. 10: 205-217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlenker, B. R. (1982). Translating actions into attitudes: An identity-analytic approach to the explanation of social conduct. In: Berkowitz, L. (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 15), Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 193-247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schnotz, W., Vosniadou, S., and Carretero, M. (1999). New Perspectives on Conceptual Change, Pergamon, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoenfeld, A. H. (1988). When good teaching leads to bad results: The disasters of “well-taught” mathematics courses. Educ. Psychol. 23: 145-166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N., Bless, H., and Bohner, G. (1991). Mood and persuasion: Affective states influence the processing of persuasive communications. In: Zanna, M. P. (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 24), Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 161-199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educ. Res. 27(2): 4-13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shuell, T. J. (1996). Teaching and learning in a classroom context. In: Berliner, D. C., and Calfee, R. C. (eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology, Macmillan, New York, pp. 726-764.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, M. A. (1995). Reconstructing mathematics pedagogy from a constructivist perspective. J. Res. Math. Educ. 26: 114-145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, M. A., and Schifter, D. (1991). Towards a constructivist perspective: An intervention study of mathematics teacher development. Educ. Stud. Math. 22: 309-331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. P., III (1996). Efficacy and teaching mathematics by telling: A challenge for reform. J. Res. Math. Educ. 27: 387-402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. F. (April 2000). The Effects of Confidence and Perception of Test-Taking Skill on Performance.Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

  • Smith, C. A., and Ellsworth, P. C. (1985). Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 48: 813-838.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sowder, J. T., Philipp, R. A., Armstrong, B. E., and Schappelle, B. P. (1998). Middle-Grade Teachers' Mathematical Knowledge and Its Relationship to Instruction: A Research Monograph, State University of New York Press, Albany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stein, M. K., Grover, B. W., and Henningsen, M. (1996). Building student capacity for mathematical thinking and reasoning: An analysis of mathematical tasks used in reform classrooms. Am. Educ. Res. J. 33: 455-488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strike, K. A., and Posner, G. J. (1992). A revisionist theory of conceptual change. In: Duschl, R. A., and Hamilton, R. J. (eds.), Philosophy of Science, Cognitive Psychology, and Educational Theory and Practice, State University of New York Press, Albany, pp. 147-176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, A. G. (1992). Teachers' beliefs and conceptions: A synthesis of the research. In: Grouws, D. A. (ed.), Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning, Macmillan, New York, pp. 127-146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., and Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Rev. Educ. Res. 68: 202-248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vosniadou, S., and Ioannides, C. (1998). From conceptual development to science education: A psychological point of view. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 20: 1213-1230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and Language, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Windschitl, M., and Andre, T. (1998). Using computer simulations to enhance conceptual change: The roles of constructivist instruction and student epistemological beliefs. J. Res. Sci. Teach. 35: 145-160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winitzky, N., and Kauchak, D. (1997). Constructivism in teacher education: Applying cognitive theory to teacher learning. In: Richardson, V. (ed.), Constructivist Teacher Education: Building a World of New Understandings, Falmer Press, Washington, DC, pp. 59-83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, T., Cobb, P., and Yackel, E. (1990). The contextual nature of teaching: Mathematics and reading instruction in one second-grade classroom. Elem. Sch. J. 90: 497-513.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woolfolk, A. E., and Hoy, W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers' sense of efficacy and beliefs about control. J. Educ. Psychol. 82: 81-91.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Educational Psychology, University of Florida, 1403 Norman Hall, PO Box 117047, Gainesville, Florida, 32611-7047

    Michele Gregoire

Authors
  1. Michele Gregoire
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gregoire, M. Is It a Challenge or a Threat? A Dual-Process Model of Teachers' Cognition and Appraisal Processes During Conceptual Change. Educational Psychology Review 15, 147–179 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023477131081

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023477131081

Search

Navigation