Abstract
Until 1950–1960, most physiologists were reluctant to accept chemical neurotransmission. They believed that chemical reactions were much too slow to account for the speed of synaptic processes. The first breakthrough was to discover the impressive velocity of acetylcholinesterase. Then, nicotinic receptors provided an example of complex ultrarapid reactions: fast activation at a low ligand affinity, then desensitization if the ligand is not rapidly removed. Here, we describe synaptic transmission as a chain of low-affinity rapid reactions, assisted by many slower regulatory processes. For starting quantal acetylcholine release, mediatophores are activated by high Ca2+ concentrations, but they desensitize at a higher affinity if Ca2+ remains present. Several mechanisms concur to the rapid removal of Ca2+ from the submembrane microdomains. Among them, the Ca2+/H+ antiport is a typical low-affinity, high-speed process that certainly contributes to the rapidity of neurotransmission.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Katz, B. 1988. Looking back at the neuromuscular junction. Pages 3–9, in Seilin, L. C., et al. (eds.), Neuromuscular junction, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam.
Harvey, A. M. and MacIntosh, F. C. 1940. Calcium and synaptic transmission in a sympathetic ganglion. J. Physiol. Lond. 97:408–416.
Katz, B. 1969. The Release of Neural Transmitter Substances. University Press, Liverpool.
Zhang, C. and Zhou, Z. 2002. Ca(2+)-independent but voltage-dependent secretion in mammalian dorsal root ganglion neurons. Nat. Neurosci. 5:425–430.
Parnas, H., Segel, L., Dudel, J., and Parnas, I. 2000. Autoreceptors, membrane potential and the regulation of transmitter release. Trends Neurosci. 23:60–68.
Dodge, F. A. and Rahamimoff, R. 1967. Co-operative action of calcium ions in transmitter release at the neuromuscular junction. J. Physiol. Lond. 193:419–432.
Dunant, Y., Eder, L., and Servetiadis-Hirt, L. 1980. Acetylcholine release evoked by single or a few nerve impulses in the electric organ of Torpedo. J. Physiol. Lond. 298:185–203.
Muller, D., Loctin, F., and Dunant, Y. 1987. Inhibition of evoked acetylcholine release: Two different mechanisms in the Torpedo electric organ. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 133:225–234.
Shoji-Kasai, Y., Yoshida, A., Sato, K., Hoshino, T., Ogura, A., Kondo, S., Fujimoto, Y., Kuwahara, R., Kato, R., and Takahashi, M. 1992. Neurotransmitter release from synaptotagmin-deficient clonal variants of PC12 cells. Science 256:1821–1823.
Peters, C., Bayer, M. J., Bühler, S., Andersen, J. S., Mann, M., and Mayer, A. 2001. Trans-complex formation by proteolipid channels in the terminal phase of membrane fusion. Nature 409:581–588.
Bruns, D. and Jahn, R. 2002. Molecular determinants of exocytosis. Pflugers Arch. 443:333–338.
Morel, N., Dunant, Y., and Israel, M. 2001. Neurotransmitter release through the V0 sector of V-ATPase. J. Neurochem. 79:485–488.
Falk-Vairant, J., Corrèges, P., Eder-Colli, L., Salem, N., Roulet, E., Bloc, A., Meunier, F., Lesbats, B., Loctin, F., Synguelakis, M., Israël, M., and Dunant, Y. 1996. Quantal acetylcholine release induced by mediatophore transfection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:5203–5207.
Dunant, Y. and Israël, M. 1998. In vitro reconstitution of neurotransmitter release. Neurochem. Res. 23:709–718.
Bloc, A., Roulet, E., Loctin, F., and Dunant, Y. 1997. Acetylcholine release from mouse neuroblastoma cells co-transfected with mediatophore and choline acetyltransferase cDNAs. NATO ASI Series 100:175–182.
Finbow, M. E. and Pitts, J. D. 1998. Structure of the ductin channel. Biosci. Rep. 18:287–297.
Birman, S., Israël, M., Lesbats, B., and Morel, N. 1986. Solubilization and partial purification of a presynaptic membrane protein ensuring calcium-dependent acetylcholine release from proteoliposomes. J. Neurochem. 47:433–444.
Cavalli, A., Eder-Colli, L., Dunant, Y., Loctin, F., and Morel, N. 1991. Release of acetylcholine from Xenopus oocytes injected with nRNAs from cholinergic neurons. EMBO J. 10:1671–1675.
Galli, T., McPherson, P. S., and De Camilli, P. 1996. The Vo sector of the V-ATPase, synaptobrevin, and synaptophysin are associated on synaptic vesicles in a Triton X-100-resistant, freeze-thawing sensitive, complex. J. Biol. Chem. 271:2193–2198.
Shiff, G., Synguelakis, M., and Morel, N. 1996. Association of syntaxin with SNAP 25 and VAMP (synaptobrevin) in Torpedo synaptosomes. Neurochem. Int. 29:659–667.
Katz, B. and Miledi, R. B. 1969. Tetrodotoxin-resistant electric activity in presynaptic terminals. J. Physiol. Lond. 203:459–487.
Adams, D. J., Takeda, K., and Umbach, J. A. 1985. Inhibitors of calcium buffering depress evoked transmitter release at the squid giant synapse. J. Physiol. Lond. 369:145–159.
Hsu, S. F., Augustine, G. J., and Jackson, M. B. 1996. Adaptation of Ca(2+)-triggered exocytosis in presynaptic terminals. Neuron 17:501–512.
Israël, M., Meunier, F. M., Morel, N., and Lesbats, B. 1987. Calcium-induced desensitization of acetylcholine release from synaptosomes or proteoliposomes equiped with mediatophore, a presynaptic membrane protein. J. Neurochem. 49:975–982.
Morot-Gaudry-Talarmain, Y., Diebler, M.-F., Robba, M., Lancelot, J.-C., Lesbats, B., and Israël, M. 1989. Effect of cetiedil analogs on acetylcholine and choline fluxes in synaptosomes and vesicles. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 166:427–433.
Dunant, Y., Loctin, F., Vallée, J.-P., Parducz, A., Lesbats, B., and Israël, M. 1996. Activation and desensitization of acetylcholine release by zinc in Torpedo nerve terminals. Pflügers Arch. 432:853–858.
Dunant, Y. and Israël, M. 2000. Neurotransmitter release in rapid synapses. Biochimie 82:289–302.
Mayer, A. 2001. What drives membrane fusion in eukaryotes? Trends. Biochem. Sci. 26:717–723.
Llinas, R., Steinberg, I. Z., and Walton, K. 1981. Relationship between presynaptic calcium current and postsynaptic potential in squid giant synapse. Biophys. J. 33:323–352.
Blaustein, M. P. 1971. Preganglionic stimulation increases calcium uptake by sympathetic ganglia. Science 172:391–393.
Babel-Guérin, E. 1974. Métabolisme du calcium et libération de l'acétylcholine dans l'organe électrique de la Torpille. J. Neuro-chem. 23:525–532.
Llinas, R., Sugimori, M., and Silver, R. B. 1992. Microdomains of high calcium concentration in a presynaptic terminal. Science USA 256:677–679.
Castonguay, A. and Robitaille, R. 2001. Differential regulation of transmitter release by presynaptic and glial Ca2+ internal stores at the neuromuscular synapse. J. Neurosci. 21: 1911–1922.
McGraw, C. F., Somlyo, A. V., and Blaustein, M. P. 1980. Localization of calcium in presynaptic nerve terminals: An ultra-structure and electron microprobe analysis. J. Cell Biol. 85:228–241.
Kostyuk, P. and Verkhratsky, A. 1994. Calcium stores in neurons and glia. Neuroscience 63:381–404.
Neher, E. 1998. Vesicle pools and Ca2+ microdomains: New tools for understanding their roles in neurotransmitter release. Neuron 20:389–399.
Marsal, J., Esquerda, J. E., Fiol, C., Solsona, C., and Tomas, J. 1980. Calcium fluxes in isolated pure cholinergic nerve endings from the electric organ of Torpedo marmorata. J. Physiol. Paris 76:443–457.
Fossier, P., Baux, G., Trudeau, L. E., and Tauc, L. 1992. Involvement of Ca2+ uptake by a reticulum-like store in the control of transmitter release. Neuroscience 50:427–434.
Couteaux, R. and Pécot-Dechavassine, M. 1973. Données ultra-structurales et cytochimiques sur le mécanisme de libération de l'acétylcholine dans la transmission synaptique. Arch. Ital. Biol. 3:231–262.
Israël, M., Manaranche, R., Marsal, J., Meunier, F. M., Morel, N., Frachon, P., and Lesbats, B. 1980. ATP-dependent calcium uptake by cholinergic synaptic vesicles isolated from Torpedo electric organ. J. Membr. Biol. 54:115–126.
Michaelson, D. M., Ophir, I., and Angel, I. 1980. ATP-stimulated Ca2+ transport into cholinergic Torpedo synaptic vesicles. J. Neurochem. 35:116–124.
Gonçalves, P. P., Meireles, S. M., Gravato, C., and Vale, M. G. 1998. Ca2+-H+-Antiport activity in synaptic vesicles isolated from sheep brain cortex. Neurosci. Lett. 247:87–90.
Parducz, A. and Dunant, Y. 1993. Transient increase in calcium in synaptic vesicles after stimulation. Neuroscience 52: 27–33.
Parducz, A., Loctín, F., Babel-Guérin, E., and Dunant, Y. 1994. Exo-endocycytotic images following tetanic stimulation at a cholinergic synapse: A role in calcium extrusion? Neuroscience 62:93–103.
Parducz, A., Toldi, J., Joo, F., Siklos, L., and Wolff, J. R. 1987. Transient increase of calcium in pre-and postsynaptic organelles of rat superior cervical ganglion after tetanizing stimulation. Neuroscience 23:1057–1061.
Buchs, P. A., Stoppini, L., Parducz, A., Siklos, L., and Muller, D. 1994. A new cytochemical method for the ultrastructural localization of calcium in the central nervous system. J. Neurosci. Meth. 54:83–93.
Dunant, Y., Babel-Guérin, E., and Droz, B. 1980. Calcium metabolism and acetylcholine release at the nerve-electroplaque junction. J. Physiol. Paris 76:471–478.
Muller, D., Garcia-Segura, L. M., Parducz, A., and Dunant, Y. 1987. Brief occurrence of a population of large intramembrane particles in the presynaptic membrane during transmission of a nerve impulse. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:590–594.
Dunant, Y. 2000. Quantal acetylcholine release: Vesicle fusion or intramembrane particles? Microscopy Res. Tech. 49:38–46.
Uvnas, B. 1973. An attempt to explain nervous transmitter release as due to nerve impulse-induced ion exchange. Acta Physiol. Scand. 87:168–175.
Rahamimoff, R. and Fernandez, J. M. 1997. Pre-and postfusion regulation of transmitter release. Neuron 18:17–27.
Malo, M., Diebler, M. F., Prado de Carvalho, L., Meunier, F. M., Dunant, Y., Bloc, A., Stinnakre, J., Tomasi, M., Tchelingerian, J., Couraud, P. O., and Israël, M. 1999. Evoked acetylcholine release by immortalized brain endothelial cells genetically modified to express choline acetyltransferase and/or the vesicular acetylcholine transporter. J. Neurochem. 73:1483–1491.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Dunant, Y., Bloc, A. Low- and High-Affinity Reactions in Rapid Neurotransmission. Neurochem Res 28, 659–665 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022806330830
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022806330830