Skip to main content
Log in

A Neuropsychological Approach to Intelligence

  • Published:
Neuropsychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper proposes that current psychometric intelligence tests are limited in evaluating cognitive activity. From a neuropsychological perspective, they fail to measure some fundamental cognitive abilities such as executive functions, memory, and visuospatial abilities. The analysis of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale presented shows that the original rationale for selecting the specific subtests included in the WAIS was unclear. The concept of a g factor in cognition is also analyzed, with the conclusion that the g factor continues to be controversial. The value of intelligence tests in predicting school performance is also criticized. It is proposed that the psychometric concept of general intelligence should be deleted from cognitive and neurological sciences. Finally, it is proposed that, in the future, neuropsychological instruments sensitive to more specific cognitive abilities replace current psychometric intelligence tests.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.

REFERENCES

  • Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological Testing (6th ed.), MacMillan, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ardila, A. (1995a). Directions of research in cross-cultural neuropsychology. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 17: 143–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ardila, A. (1995b). Estructura de la actividad cognoscitiva: Hacia una teoria neuropsicológica [Structure of cognitive activity: Toward a neuropsychological theory]. Neuropsychologia Latina 1(2): 21–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ardila, A., Galeano, L. M., and Rosselli, M. (1998). Toward a model of neuropsychological activity. Neuropsychology Review 8: 171–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ardila, A., Pineda, D., and Rosselli, M. (in press). Correlation between intelligence test scores and executive function measures. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology.

  • Ardila, A., and Rosselli, M. (1990). Acalculias. Behavioural Neurology 3: 39–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ardila, A., and Rosselli, M. (1993). Spatial agraphia. Brain and Cognition 22: 75–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ardila, A., and Rosselli, M. (1994). Development of language, memory and visuospatial abilities in 5-to 12-year-old children using a neuropsychological battery. Developmental Neuropsychology 10: 97–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., and Bateman, J. R. (1994). Factorial structure of cognitive activity. Behavioral Neurology 7: 49–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., and Ostrosky, F. (1996). Agraphia in Spanish-language. Aphasiology 10: 723–739.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, D. F. (1982). The alexia: A guide to the neural basis of reading. In Kirsher, H. S., and Freemon, F. (eds.), The Neurology of Aphasia, Swets, Amsterdam, pp. 139–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, D. F. (1994). The Neurology of Thinking, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, D. F., and Ardila, A. (1996). Aphasia: A Clinical Perspective, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benton, A. (1989). Constructional apraxia. In Goodglass, H., and Damasio, A. R. (eds.), Handbook of Clinical Neuropsychology (Vol. 2), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 287–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernatzik, H. A. (1957). Razas y pueblos del mundo [World races and people]. Vols. 1-3. Ediciones Ave, Barcelona.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W. (1971). Ecological and cultural factors in spatial perceptual development. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences 3: 324–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W. (1979). Culture and cognition style. In Mrsella, A., Tharp, R. G., and Ciborowski, T. J. (eds.), Perspectives in Cross-Cultural Psychology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 117–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Segall, M. H., and Dasen, P. R. (1992). Cross-Cultural Psychology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binet, A. (1905). Analysis of C.E. Spearman: The proof and measurement of association between two things and general intelligence objectively determined and measured. L'Anne Psychologique 11: 623–624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binet, A. (1908). Le developpement de l'intelligence chez les enfants. [The development of intelligence in children.] L'Anne Psychologique 14: 1–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, F. W. (1976). Cognitive deficits in patients with unilateral war-related frontal lobe lesions. Journal of Clinical Psychology 32: 366–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bornstein, R. A., and Chelune, G. J. (1988). Factor structure of the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2: 107–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brazzelli, M., Colombo, N., Della Salla, S., and Spinnler, H. (1994). Spared and impaired abilities after bilateral frontal damage. Cortex 30: 27–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, N. (1992). Intelligence (2nd ed.), Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. E. (1985). Frontal lobe syndromes. In Frederiks J. A. M. (ed.), Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Vol. 45: Clinical Neuropsychology, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 32–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor Analytic Studies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cattell, R. B. (1971). Abilities: Their Structure, Growth and Action, Houghton-Mifflin, Boston.

  • Ceci, S. J. (1990). On Intelligence... More or Less: A Bioecological Treatise on Intellectual Development, Prentice Hall, Englewood, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of evidence. Developmental Psychology 27: 703–722.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J., and Williams, W. M. (1997). Schooling, intelligence and income. American Psychologist 52: 1051–1058.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chabris, C. F., and Hamilton, S. E. (1992). Hemispheric specialization for skilled perceptual organization by chessmasters. Neuropsychologia 30: 47–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J. (1990). Essentials of Psychological Testing (5th ed.), Harper and Row, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Damasio, A. R., and Anderson, S. W. (1993). The frontal lobes. In Heilman, K. M., and Valenstein, E. (eds.), Clinical Neuropsychology, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 409–460. 3rd edition.

    Google Scholar 

  • Damasio, H., and Damasio, A. R. (1989). Lesion Analysis in Neuropsychology, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Das, J. P., Naglieri, J. A., and Kirby, J. R. (1994). Assessment of Cognitive Processes: The PASS Theory of Intelligence, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Renzi, E. (1982). Disorders of Space Exploration and Cognition, Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Renzi, E. (1985). Disorder of space exploration. In Frederiks, J. A. M. (ed.), Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Vol. 45: Clinical Neuropsychology, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 405–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elwood, R. W. (1991). Factor structure of the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised (WMS-R) in a clinical sample: A methodological reappraisal. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 5: 329–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, H. (1986). Inspection time and intelligence: A historical introduction. Personality and Individual Differences 7: 603–607.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flynn, J. R. (1984). The mean IQ gains of Americans: Massive gains 1932–1978. Psychological Bulletin 95: 29–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological Bulletin 101: 171–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frearson, W. M., and Eysenck, H. J. (1986). Intelligence, reaction time [TR] and a new “odd-man-out” RT paradigm. Personality and Individual Differences 7: 807–817.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuster, J. M. (1989). The Prefrontal Cortex (2nd ed.), Raven Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Basic Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield, P. M. (1997). You can't take it with you: Why ability assessments don't cross cultures. American Psychologist 52: 1115–1124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guilford, J. P. (1967). The Nature of Human Intelligence, McGraw-Hill, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guilford, J. P. (1968). Intelligence has three facets. Science 160: 615–620.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guilford, J. P., and Hoepfner, R. (1971). The Analysis of Intelligence. McGraw-Hill, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hebb, D. (1939). Intelligence in man after large removals of cerebral tissue: Report of four left frontal lobe cases. Journal of General Psychology 21: 73–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Hebb, D. O. (1942). The effects of early and late brain injury upon test scores and the nature of normal adult intelligence. Proceedings of the American Phylosophical Society 85: 275–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hebb, D. O. (1945). Man's frontal lobe: A critical review. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 54: 421–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hebb, D., and Penfield, W. (1940). Human behavior after extensive bilateral removal from the frontal lobes. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 44: 421–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hécaen, H. (1962). Clinical symptomatology in right and left hemisphere lesions. In Mountcastle, V. B. (ed.), Interhemispheric Relations and Cerebral Dominance, John Hopkins University, Baltimore, pp. 215–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hécaen, H. (1964). Mental symptoms associated with tumors of the frontal lobe. In Warren, J. M., and Akert, K. (eds.), The Frontal Granular Cortex and Behavior, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 335–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hécaen, H., and Albert, M. L. (1978). Human Neuropsychology, Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henson, R. A. (1985). Amusia. In Frederiks, J. A. M. (ed.), Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Vol. 45: Clinical Neuropsychology, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 483–490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, J. (1986). Cognitive ability, cognitive aptitudes, job knowledge, and job performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior 29: 340–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Irvine, S. H., and Berry, J. W. (eds.), (1988). Human Ability in Cultural Context, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janowsky, J. S, Shimamura, A. P., Kritchevsky, M., and Squire, L. R. (1989). Cognitive impairments following frontal lobe damage and its relevance to human amnesia. Behavioral Neurosciences 103: 548–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing, Free Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, A. R. (1987). Individual differences and the Hick paradigm. In P. A. Vernon (ed.), Speed of Information Processing and Intelligence, Ablex, Norwood, pp. 101–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser, H. F. (1960). The varimax solution for Primary Mental Abilities. Psychometrika 25: 153–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, E., Fein, D., Morris, R., and Delis, D. (1991). WAIS-R as a Neuropsychological Instrument, Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, A. S., and Kaufman, N. L. (1993). Manual for the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT), American Guidance Service, Circle Pines, MN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, A. S., and Kaufman, N. L. (1997). The Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test. In Flanagan, D. P., Genshaft, J. D., and Harrison, P. L. (eds.), Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests and Issues, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 209–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kertesz, A. (1983). Localization in Neuropsychology, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lecours, A. R., Mehler, J., Parente, M. A., Beltrami, M. C., Canossa de Tolipan, L., Castro M. J., Carrono, V., Chagastelles, L., Dehaut, F., Delgado, R., Evangelista, A., Fajgenbaum, S., Fontoura, C., de Fraga Karmann, D., Gurd, J., Hierro Torne, C., Jakubovicz, R., Kac, R., Lefevre, B., Lima, C., Maciel, J., Mansur, L., Martinez, R., Nobrega, M. C., Osorio, Z., Paciornik, J., Papaterra, F., Jourdan Penedo, M. A., Saboya, B., Scheuer, C., Batista da Silva, A., Spinardi, M., and Texeira, M. (1988). Illiteracy and brain damage, III: A contribution to the study of speech and language disorders in illiterates with unilateral brain damage (initial testing). Neuropsychologia 26: 575–589.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lecours, R. L., Mehler, J., Parente, M. A., Caldeira, A., Cary, L., Castro, M. J., Dehaout, F., Delgado, R., Gurd, J., Karmann, D., Jakubovitz, R., Osorio, Z., Cabral, L. S., and Junqueira, M. (1987). Illiteracy and brain damage, I: Aphasia testing in culturally contrasted populations (control subjects). Neuropsychologia 25: 231–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological Assessment (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1966). Human Brain and Psychological Processes, Harper and Row, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1969). Frontal lobe syndromes. In Vinken, P. J., and Bruyn, G. W. (eds.), Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Vol. 2, North Holland, Amsterdam, pp. 725–757.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1973). The frontal lobes and the regulation of behavior. In Pribram, K. H., and Luria, A. R. (eds.), Psychophysiology of the Frontal Lobes, Academic Press, New York, pp. 3–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1976a). Basic Problems of Neurolinguistics, Mouton, The Hague, Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1976b). The Neuropsychology of Memory, Halstead, Somerset, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1980). Higher Cortical Functions in Man (2nd ed.), Basic, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matarazzo, J. D. (1972). Wechsler's Measurement and Appraisal of Adult Intelligence, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matute, E. (1988). El aprendizaje de la lectoescritura y la especialización hemisférica para el lenguaje [Reading and writing learning, and hemispheric specialization for language]. In Ardila, A., and Ostrosky-Solis, F. (eds.), Lenguaje oral y escrito [Oral and written language]. Mexico D. F., Mexico: Editorial Trillas, pp. 310–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, B. (1963). Effects of different brain lesions on card sorting. Archives of Neurology 9: 90–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner, B. (1982). Some cognitive effects of frontal-lobe lesions in man. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 298: 211–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrow, L., and Ratcliff, G. (1988). The neuropsychology of spatial cognition. In Stiles-Davis, J., Kritchevsky, M., and Bellugi, U. (eds.), Spatial Cognition: Brain Bases and Development, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 5–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naglieri, J. A. (1997). Planning, attention, simultaneous and succesive theory and the cognitive assessment system: A new theory-based measure of intelligence. In Flanagan, D. P., Genshaft, J. D., and Harrison, P. L. (eds.), Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests and Issues, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 247–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naglieri, J. A., and Das, J. P. (1996). Das Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System, Riverside, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Stenberg, R. J., and Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist 51: 77–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nettlebeck, T. (1987). Inspection time and intelligence. In Vernon, P. A. (ed.), Speed of Information Processing and Intelligence, Ablex, Norwood, NJ, pp. 295–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newcombe, F., and Ratcliff, G. (1989). Disorders of visuospatial analysis. In Goodglass, H., and Damasio, A. R. (eds.), Handbook of Clinical Neuropsychology (Vol. 2), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 333–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrosky, F., Ardila, A., and Rosselli, M. (1998). Neuropsychological test performance in illiterates. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 13: 645–660.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrosky, F., Ardila, A., and Rosselli, M. (1999). NEUROPSI: A brief neuropsychological test battery in Spanish with norms by age and educational level. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 5: 413–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perecman, E. (1987). Consciousness and the meta-functions of the frontal lobes. In Perecman, E. (ed.), The Frontal Lobes Revisited, IRBN Press, New York, pp. 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pettersen, S. E., Fox, P. T., Snyder, A. Z., and Raichle, M. E. (1989). Activation of extrastriate and frontal cortical areas by visual words and word-like stimuli. Science 249: 1041–1044.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pirozzolo, F. J. (1985). Mental retardation. In Frederiks, J. A. M. (ed.) Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Vol. 46: Neurobehavioral Disorders, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 1–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pontón, M. O., Satz, P., and Herrera, L. (1994). Factor analysis of a neuropsychological screening battery for Hispanics (NeSBHIS). XVII European Meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, June.

  • Posner, M. I., Petersen, S. E., Fox, P. T., and Raichle, M. E. (1988). Localization of cognitive operations in the human brain. Science 240: 1627–1631.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pribram, K. H. (1973). The primate frontal cortex—Executive of the brain. In Pribram, K. H., and Luria, A. R. (eds). Psychophysiology of the Frontal Lobes, Academic, New York, pp. 293–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, C. J., Wise, R. J. S., Watson, J. D. G., Patterson, K., Howard, D., and Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1994). Brain activation during reading: The effects of exposure duration and task. Brain 117: 1255–1269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed, T. E., and Jensen, A. R. (1992). Conduction velocity in a brain nerve pathway of normal adults correlates with intelligence level. Intelligence 16: 259–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roid, G. H., Prifitera, A., and Ledbetter, M. (1988). Confirmatory analysis of the factor structure of the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised. Clinical Neuropsychology 2: 116–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosselli, M., and Ardila, A. (1989). Calculation deficits in patients with right and left hemisphere damage. Neuropsychologia 27: 607–617.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sasanuma, S., and Fujimura, O. (1971). Kanji versus Kana processing in alexia with transient agraphia: A case report. Cortex 7: 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spearman, C. (1904). “General intelligence” objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology 15: 201–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spearman, C. (1923). The Nature of “Intelligence” and the Principles of Cognition, MacMillan, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spreen, O., and Strauss, E. (1991). A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spreen, O., and Strauss, E. (1998). A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms and Commentary (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern, W. (1912). Die psychologischen Methoden der Intelligenz prufung. [The Psychological Method to Measure Intelligence.] Leipzig: Barth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence, Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, R. J. (1988). A triarchic view of intelligence. In Irvine, S. H., and Berry, J. W. (eds.), Human Ability in Cultural Context, Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 60–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, R. J. (1997). The concept of intelligence and its role in lifelong learning and success. American Psychologist 52: 1030–1037.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuss, K. H., and Benson, D. F. (1983). Frontal lobe lesions and behavior. In Kertesz, A. (ed.), Localization in Neuropsychology, Academic Press, New York, pp. 429–454.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuss, D. T., and Benson, D. F. (1986). The Frontal Lobes, Raven Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuss, D. T., and Benson, D. F. (1987). The frontal lobes and control of cognition and memory. In Perecman, E. (ed.), The Frontal Lobes Revisited, IRBN Press, New York, pp. 141–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swadesh, M. (1967). El Lenguaje y la Vida Humana [Language and Human Life], Fondo de Cultural Económica, Mexico.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terman, L. M. (1916). The Measure of Intelligence, Houghton-Mifflin, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teuber, H. L. (1972). Unity and diversity of frontal lobe function. Acta Neurobiology Experimental 32: 615–656.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorndike, R. L., Hagen, E. P., and Sattler, J. M. (1986). Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Guide for Administration and Scoring, Riverside, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thurnstone, L. L. (1938). Primary Mental Abilities, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thurnstone, L. L. (1947). Multiple Factor Analysis, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, P.E. (1950). The Structure of Human Abilities, Wiley, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1944). The Measurement of Adult Intelligence. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1945). A standardized memory scale for clinical use. Journal of Psychology 19: 87–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1987). Manual for the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised, Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1997). WAIS-III: Administration and Scoring Manual, Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welsh, M. C., Pennington, B. F., and Groisser, D. B. (1991). A normative-developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children. Developmental Neuropsychology 7: 131–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamadori, A. (1975). Ideogram reading in alexia. Brain 98: 231–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu-Huan, H., Ying-Guan, Q., and Gui-Qing, Z. (1990). Crossed aphasia in Chinese: A clinical survey. Brain and Language 39: 347–356.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ardila, A. A Neuropsychological Approach to Intelligence. Neuropsychol Rev 9, 117–136 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021674303922

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021674303922

Navigation