Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Factors Contributing to Gender Differences in Depressive Symptoms: A Test of Three Developmental Models

  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In a longitudinal study on 115 early adolescents, the impact of major events, relationship stressors, and coping style in interaction with biological changes on depressive outcome in late adolescence were explored. Three developmental models proposed by Nolen-Hoeksema and Girgus (1994, Psychol. Bull. 115: 424–433), which attempt to explain the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms, were tested. Multiple regression analyses conducted to test Model 1 identified two etiological factors associated with gender differences of depression, namely, stress in the adolescent–mother relationship and a more negative body image. Tests of Model 2 revealed etiological factors which correlated with depression in adolescent girls but not adolescent boys. The correlational patterns of avoidant coping and body image emerged as relevant factors for Model 2. Finally, tests of Model 3 searched for factors which were more likely to be observed in adolescent girls than boys and which would put girls at risk should they interact with a third etiological factor. Early maturational timing emerged as a factor for Model 3.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Youth Self-Report and 1991 Profile. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry, Burlington, VT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allgood-Merten, B., Lewinsohn, P. M., and Hops, H. (1990). Sex differences and adolescent depression. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 99: 55–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amato, R. P., and Keith, B. (1991). Parental divorce and the well-being of children: A meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 110: 26–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J. (1988). Antecedents and consequences of variations in girls' maturational timing. J. Adolesc. Health Care 9: 365–373.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., Graber, J., and Paikoff, R. L. (1994). Studying links between hormones and negative affect: Models and measures. J. Res. Adolesc. 4: 469–486.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., and Petersen, A. C. (1991). Studying the emergence of depression and depressive symptoms during adolescence. J. Youth Adolesc. 20: 115–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., and Warren, M. P. (1989). Biological and social contributions to negative affect in young adolescent girls. Child Dev. 60: 40–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, G. W., Harris, O., and Eales, M. J. (1993). Etiology of anxiety and depressive disorders in an inner-city population. 2: Comorbidity and adversity. Psychol. Med. 23: 155–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carey, M. P., Kelley, M.-L., Buss, R. R., and Scott, W. O. (1986). Relationship activity to depression in adolescents: Development of the Adolescent Activity Checklist. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 54: 320–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan, D.W. (1995). Depressive symptoms and coping strategies among Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. J. Youth Adolesc. 24: 267–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., and Toth, S. L. (1998). The development of depression in children and adolescents. Am. Psychol. 53: 221–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., Davis, G. E., Forsythe, C. J., and Wagner, B. M. (1987). Assessment of major and daily stressful events during adolescence: The Adolescent Perceived Events Scale. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 55: 534–541.

    Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., Oppedisano, G., Connor, J. K., Gerhardt, C. A., Hinden, B. R., Achenbach, T. M., and Hammen, C. (1997). Gender differences in depressive symptoms in adolescence: Comparison of national samples of clinically referred and nonreferred youths. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 65: 617–626.

    Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., and Wagner, B. M. (1991). Psychological stress during adolescence: Intrapersonal and interpersonal processes. In: Colten, M. E., and Gore, S. (eds.), Adolescent Stress: Causes and Consequences. Aldine de Gruyter, New York, pp. 67–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, T. N., Cohen, P., Midlarsky, E., and Brook, J. S. (2001). Internalizing symptoms in adolescents: Gender differences in vulnerability to parental distress and discord. J. Res. Adolesc. 11: 95–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cyranowski, J. E., Frank, E., Young, E., and Shear,K. (2000). Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of major depression. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 57: 21–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deusinger, I. (1992). Die Frankfurter Körperkonzeptskalen [The Frankfurt Body Scales]. Unpublished manuscript, Frankfurt a. M., Germany.

  • Ebata, A.T., and Moos, R. H. (1991). Coping and adjustment in distressed and healthy adolescents. J. Appl. Psychol. 17: 33–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edelbrock, C., and Costello, A. J. (1988). Convergence between statistically derived behavior problem syndromes and child psychiatric diagnoses. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 16: 219–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Facia, A., and Batistuta, M. (2001). What makes Argentinean girls unhappy? A Cross-cultural contribution to understanding gender differences in depressed mood during adolescence. J. Adolesc. 24: 671–680.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein, J. A. S., Donenberg, G. R., and Martinovich, Z. (2001). Maternal control and adolescent depression: Ethnic differences among clinically referred girls. J. Youth Adolesc. 30: 155–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ge, X., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., and Simons, R. L. (1994). Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Dev. Psychol. 30: 467–483.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gladstone, T. R. G., and Koenig, L. J. (1994). Sex differences in depression across the high school to college transition. J. Youth Adolesc. 23: 643–669.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gomez, R. (1998). Impatience-aggression, competitiveness and avoidant coping: Direct and moderating effects on maladjustment among adolescents. Pers. Individ. Diff. 25: 649–661.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., and Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 107: 128–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herman-Stahl, M., Stemmler, M., and Petersen, A. C. (1995). Approach and avoidant coping: Implications for adolescent health. J. Youth Adolesc. 24: 649–665.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holahan, C. J., and Moos, R. H. (1991). Life stressors, personal and social resources, and depression: A 4-year structural model. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 100: 31–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Houston, A. C., and Alvarez, M. M. (1990). The socialization context of gender role development in early adolescence. In Montemayor, R., and Adams, G. R. (eds.), From Childhood to Adolescence: A Transitional Period? Advances in Adolescent Development (Vol. 2). Sage, Newbury Park, CA, pp. 134–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kavanaugh, K., and Hops, H. (1994). Good girls? Bad boys? Gender and development as context for diagnosis and treatment. In Ollendick, T. H., and Prinz, R. J. (eds.), Advances in Clinical Child Psychol. (Vol. 16). Plenum, New York, pp. 189–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurdek, L. A. (1987). Gender differences in the psychological symptomatology and coping strategies of young adolescents. J. Early Adolesc. 7: 395–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Robert, R. E., Seeley, J. R., Rohde, P., Gotlib, I. H., and Hops, H. (1994). Adolescent psychopathology. II: Psychosocial risk factors for depression. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 103: 302–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychol. Bull. 101: 259–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., and Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychol. Bull. 115: 424–443.

    Google Scholar 

  • Offord, D. R., Boyle, M. H., Szatmari, P., Rae-Grant, N. J., Links, P. S., Cadman, D. T., Byles, J. A., Crawford, J. W., Munroe-Blum, A., Byrne, C., Thomas, H., and Woodward, C. A. (1987). The Ontario Child Health Study. II: Six-months prevalence of disorder and rates of service utilization. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 44: 831–836.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohannessian, C. M., Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., and von Eye, A. (1999). Does self-competence predict gender differences in adolescent depression and anxiety? J. Adolesc. 22: 397–411.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olah, H. (1996). Coping strategies among adolescents: A cross-cultural study. J. Adolesc. 18: 491–512.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papini, D. R., and Sebby, R. A. (1988). Variations in conflictual family issues by adolescent pubertal status, gender and family member. J. Early Adolesc. 8: 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, A. C., Sarigiani, P. A., and Kennedy, R. E. (1991). Adolescent depression: Why more girls? J. Youth Adolesc. 20: 247–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, L., Mullins, L., and Ridley-Johnson, R. (1985). Childhood depression: Peer reactions to depression and life stress. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 13: 597–610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, J. W., Denton, R., and Mattson, A. (1995). Adolescent depression: Effects of mutuality in the mother–adolescent dyad and locus of control. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 65: 263–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reinherz, H. Z., Stewart-Berghauer, G., Pakiz, B., Frost, A. K., and Moeykens, B. A. (1989). The relationships of early risk and current mediators to depressive symptomatology in adolescence. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 28: 942–947.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandler, L. N., Fein, J. Y., and West, S. G. (1993). Coping, stress, and psychological symptoms of children of divorce: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Child Dev. 65: 1744–1763.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seiffge-Krenke, I. (1993). Coping behavior in normal and clinical samples: More similarities than differences? J. Adolesc. 16: 285–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seiffge-Krenke, I. (1995). Stress, Coping, and Relationships in Adolescence. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seiffge-Krenke, I. (1998). Adolescent's Health: A Developmental Perspective. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seiffge-Krenke, I. (1999). Families with daughters, families with sons: Different challenges for family relationships and marital satisfaction?. J. Youth Adolesc.3: 325–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seiffge-Krenke, I. (2000). Predicting adolescents' symptomatology through stressful events and coping style. J. Adolesc. 23: 675–691.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seiffge-Krenke, I., and Klessinger, N. (2000). Long-term effects of avoidant coping on adolescents' depressive symptoms. J. Youth Adolesc. 29: 617–630.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheeber, L., Hops, H., Alpert, A., Davies, B., and Andrews, J. (1997). Family support and conflict: Prospective relations to adolescent depression. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 25: 333–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smetana, J. G., Yau, J., and Hanson, S. (1991). Conflict resolution in families with adolescents. J. Res. Adolesc. 1: 189–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spirito, F., Francis, G., Overholser, J. C., and Frank, N. (1996). Coping, depression, and adolescent suicide attempts. J. Abnorm. Child. 17: 213–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistisches Bundesamt (1991). Familien in Deutschland [Families in Germany]. Statistisches Bundesamt, Wiesbaden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolk, S. I., and Weisman, M. M. (1995). Woman and depression: An update. In Oldham, J., and Riba, M. (eds.), American Psychiatric Press Review of Psychiatry (Vol. 14). American Psychiatric Press pp. 227–259.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Mainz, Germany

    Inge Seiffge-Krenke (Professor of Psychology)

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany

    Mark Stemmler (Assistant Professor)

Authors
  1. Inge Seiffge-Krenke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mark Stemmler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Seiffge-Krenke, I., Stemmler, M. Factors Contributing to Gender Differences in Depressive Symptoms: A Test of Three Developmental Models. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 31, 405–417 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020269918957

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020269918957

Search

Navigation