Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Pacific Coral-reef Fishes: The Implications of Behaviour and Ecology of Larvae for Biodiversity and Conservation, and a Reassessment of the Open Population Paradigm

  • Published:
Environmental Biology of Fishes Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The two-phase life history of most marine fishes and invertebrates has enormous implications for dispersal, population connectivity, and resource management. Pelagic dispersal larvae of marine animals traditionally thought to ensure that populations are widespread, that chances of local extinction are low, and that marine protected areas (MPA) can easily function to replenish both their own populations and those of unprotected areas. Traditionally, dispersal is considered to depend primarily on two variables: pelagic larva duration and far-field currents. These conclusions arise from the ‘open population’ paradigm and are usually accompanied by a ‘simplifying assumption’: larvae are distributed passively by far-field currents. Unfortunately, they ignore the complex reality of circulation and hydrological connectivity of reefs, and do not consider newly-demonstrated behavioural capabilities of coral-reef fish larvae. Far-field circulation varies with depth and often excludes water bodies where propagules are released, and this has important implications for predicting trajectories of even passive larvae. However, larvae are not passive: late-stage larvae of coral-reef fishes can swim faster than currents for long periods, can probably detect reefs at some distance, and can actively find them. This behaviour is flexible, which greatly complicates modelling of larval fish trajectories. Populations at ecological (as opposed to evolutionary) scales are probably less open and more subdivided than previously assumed. All this means that dispersal predictions based solely on far-field water circulation are probably wrong. An emerging view of larval-fish dispersal is articulated that takes these new data and perspectives into account. This emerging view shows that re-evaluation of traditional views in several areas is required, including the contribution of larval-fish biology and dispersal to biodiversity patterns, the way reef fishes are managed, and the way in which MPA are thought to operate. At evolutionary and zoogeographic scales, reef-fish populations are best considered to be open.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References cited

  • Armsworth, P.K., M.K. James & L. Bode. 2001. When to press on, wait or turn back: dispersal strategies for reef-fish larvae. Amer. Nat. 1157: 434–450.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellwood, D.R. 1997. Reef-fish biogeography: habitat associations, fossils and phylogenies. pp. 379–384. In: H.A. Lessios & I.G. Macintyre (ed.) Proceedings 8th International Coral Reef Symposium, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benzie, J.A.H. 1999. Genetic structure of coral reef organisms: ghosts of dispersal past. Amer. Zool. 39: 131–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benzie, J.A.H. & S.T. Williams. 1997. Gene flow among giant clam (Tridachna maxima) populations in the Pacific does not parallel ocean circulation. Evolution 51: 768–783.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, K.P., P.J. Moran & L.S. Hammond. 1991. Numerical models show coral reefs can be self-seeding. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 74: 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaxter, J.H.S. 1986. Development of sense organs and behavior of teleost larvae with special reference to feeding and predator avoidance. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 115: 98–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bohnsack, J.A. 1996. Maintenance and recovery of reef fishery productivity. pp. 283–314. In: N.V.C. Polunin & C.M. Roberts (ed.) Reef Fisheries, Chapman and Hall, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brothers, E.B. & R.E. Thresher. 1985. Pelagic duration, dispersal, and the distribution of Indo-Pacific coral-reef fishes. pp. 53–70. In: M.L. Reaka (ed.) The Ecology of Coral Reefs (Symposia Series for Undersea Research, NOAA's Undersea Research Program 3), NOAA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caley, M.J., M.H. Carr, M.A. Hixon, T.P. Hughes, G.P. Jones & B.A. Menge. 1996. Recruitment and the local dynamics of open marine populations. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 27: 477–500.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr, M.H. & P.T. Raimondi. 1999. Marine protected areas as a precautionary approach to management. CalCOFI Rep. 40: 71–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, T.A. 1995. Larvae of nearshore fishes in oceanic waters of the Central Pacific. Pac. Sci. 49: 134–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowen, R.K., K.M.M. Lwiza, S. Sponaugle, C.B. Paris & D.B. Olson. 2000. Connectivity of marine populations: open or closed? Science 287: 857–859.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dana, T.F. 1975. Development of contemporary eastern Pacific coral reefs. Mar. Biol. 33: 355–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, J.K., J.M. Elliott & R.N. Mariscal. 1995. Host selection, location, and association behaviours of anemonefishes in field selection experiments. Mar. Biol. 122: 377–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, R., D.R. Bellwood & S.D. Job. 2000. The development of swimming abilities in reef fish larvae. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 202: 163–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gill, A.C. 1999. Subspecies, geographic forms and widespread Indo-Pacific coral-reef fish species: a call for change in taxonomic practice. pp. 79–87. In: B. Séret & J.Y. Sire (ed.) Proceedings of the 5th Indo-Pacific Fish Conference, Noumea 1997, Société Francaise d'Ichtyologie & Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grigg, R.W. 1981. Acropora in Hawaii, Part 2. Zoogeography. Pac. Sci. 35:15–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grigg, R.W., J.W. Wells & C. Wallace. 1981. Acropora in Hawaii. Part 1. History of the scientific record, systematics, and ecology. Pac. Sci. 35: 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, M.K., I.J. Dight & J.C. Day. 1990. Application of larval dispersal models to zoning of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. pp. 140–145. In: Anon. (ed.) Proceedings of the 4th Pacific Science Congress on Marine Science and Technology, Nihon University, Tokyo, Vol. 2, Pacon International, Tokyo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, A.T. 1991. Drowned reefs in the Alenuihaha Channel: evidence for island subsidence and low stands of Quaternary sea level. Pac. Sci. 45: 92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, G.P., M.J. Milicich, M.J. Emslie & C. Lunow. 1999. Self-recruitment in a coral reef fish population. Nature 402: 802–804.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, L., J. Ebersole, J. Beets & C.C. McIvor. 1992. A key phase in the recruitment dynamics of coral reef fishes: post-settlement transition. Env. Biol. Fish. 34: 109–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, T.N. & E. Williams. 1999. Mean currents and seasonal variability of coastal currents and temperature in the Florida Keys with implications for larval recruitment. Bull. Mar. Sci. 64: 35–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M. 1991. The pelagic phase of coral reef fishes: larval biology of coral reef fishes. pp. 183–230. In: P.F. Sale (ed.) The Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs, Academic Press, San Diego.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M. 1994. Coral Sea atoll lagoons – closed nurseries for the larvae of a few species of coral-reef fishes. Bull. Mar. Sci. 54: 206–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M. & B.M. Carson-Ewart. 1997. Swimming speeds of the late larvae of some coral reef fishes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 159: 165–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M. & B.M. Carson-Ewart. 1998. Complex behaviour by coral-reef fish larvae in open water and near-reef pelagic environments. Env. Biol. Fish. 53: 259–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M. & B.M. Carson-Ewart. 1999. In situ swimming and settlement behaviour of larvae of an Indo-Pacific coral-reef fish, the coral trout (Pisces, Serranidae, Plectropomus leopardus). Mar. Biol. 134: 51–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M. & B.M. Carson-Ewart (ed.) 2000. The Larvae of Indo-Pacific Coastal Fishes: a Guide to Identification. Brill, Leiden. 850 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M. & B.M. Carson-Ewart. 2001. Behaviour of pelagic larvae of four coral-reef fish species in the ocean and an atoll lagoon. Coral Reefs 19: 247–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M. & M.I. McCormick. 2002. The biology, behavior and ecology of the pelagic larval stage of coral reef fishes. pp. 171–199. In: P.F. Sale (ed.) Coral Reef Fishes: Dynamics and Diversity in a Complex Ecosystem, Academic Press, San Diego.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M. & I.C. Stobutzki. 1999. Swimming performance of late pelagic larvae of coral-reef fishes: in situ and laboratory-based measurements. pp. 575–583. In: B. Séret & J.-Y. Sire (ed.) Proceedings of the 5th Indo-Pacific Fish Conference, Noumea, 1997, Societe Francaise d'Ichtyologie & Institut de Recherche pour le Developpment, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M., H.P.A. Sweatman & S.E. Reader. 1996. What the pelagic stages of coral reef fishes are doing out in blue water: daytime field observations of larval behaviour. Mar. Freshw. Res. 47: 401–411.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leis, J.M., T. Trnski, P.J. Doherty & V. Dufour. 1998. Replenishment of fish populations in the enclosed lagoon of Taiaro Atoll: evidence from eggs and larvae. Coral Reefs 17: 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindeman, K.C., T.N. Lee, W.D. Wilson, R. Claro & J.S. Ault. 2001. Transport of larvae originating in southwest Cuba and the Dry Tortugas: evidence for partial retention in grunts and snappers. Proc. Gulf Carib. Fish. Inst. 52: 732–747.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, T.J., L.B. Crowder, J.A. Rice & E.A. Marschall. 1988. Larval size and recruitment mechanisms in fishes: toward a conceptual framework. Can. J. Fish. Aqua. Sci. 45: 1657–1670.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palumbi, S.R. 1999. The prodigal fish. Nature 402: 733–735.

    Google Scholar 

  • Planes, S. 1993. Genetic differentiation in relation to restricted larval dispersal of the convict surgeonfish Acanthurus triostegus in French Polynesia. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 98: 237–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Planes, S., M. Parroni & C. Chauvet. 1998. Evidence of limited gene flow in three species of coral-reef fishes in the lagoon of New Caledonia. Mar. Biol. 130: 361–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porch, C.E. 1998. A numerical study of larval fish retention along the southeast Florida coast. Ecol. Model. 109: 35–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, C.M. 1997. Connectivity and management of Caribbean coral reefs. Science 278: 1454–1456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, D.R. 2001. Population maintenance among tropical reef fishes: inferences from small-island endemics. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 98: 5667–5670.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruckelshaus, M.H. & C.G. Hays. 1998. Conservation and management of species in the sea. pp. 112–156. In: P.L. Fielder & P.M. Kareina (ed.) Conservation Biology for the Coming Decade, 2nd Edition, Chapman and Hall, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, E.T. & R.K. Cowen. 1994. Recruitment of coral-reef fishes to Bermuda local retention or long-distance transport? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 109: 15–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, M.J. 1998. What can population genetics tell us about dispersal and biogeographic history of coral-reef fishes? Aust. J. Ecol. 23: 216–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, M.J. & E. Bermingham. 1995. Early life histories, ocean currents and the population genetics of Caribbean reef fishes. Evolution 49: 897–910.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, M. 1988. Marine Populations. Washington Sea Grant Program, University of Washington Press, Seattle. 252 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Springer, V.G. & J.T. Williams. 1990. Widely distributed Pacific Plate endemics and lowered sea-level. Bull. Mar. Sci. 47: 631–640.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stobutzki, I.C. 1998. Interspecific variation in sustained swimming ability of late pelagic stage reef fish from two families (Pomacentridae and Chaetodontidae). Coral Reefs 17: 111–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stobutzki, I.C. & D.R. Bellwood. 1994. An analysis of the sustained swimming abilities of pre-and post-settlement coral reef fishes. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 175: 275–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stobutzki, I.C. & D.R. Bellwood. 1997. Sustained swimming abilities of the late pelagic stages of coral reef fishes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 149: 35–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stobutzki, I.C. & D. Bellwood. 1998. Nocturnal orientation to reefs by late pelagic stage coral reef fishes. Coral Reefs 17: 103–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swearer, S.E., J.E. Caselle, D.W. Lea & R.R. Warner. 1999. Larval retention and recruitment in an island population of a coral-reef fish. Nature 402: 799–802.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweatman, H.P.A. 1988. Field evidence that settling coral reef fish larvae detect resident fishes using dissolved chemical cues. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 124: 163–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresher, R.E. & E.B. Brothers. 1985. Reproductive ecology and biogeography of Indo-West Pacific angelfishes (Pisces: Pomacanthidae). Evolution 39: 878–887.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thresher, R.E., P.L. Colin & L.J. Bell. 1989. Planktonic duration, distribution and population structure of western and central Pacific damselfishes (Pomacentridae). Copeia 1989: 420–434.

  • Tolimieri, N., A. Jeffs & J.C. Montgomery. 2000. Ambient sound as a cue for navigation by the pelagic larvae of reef fishes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 207: 219–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Victor, B.C. 1986. Duration of the planktonic larval stage of one hundred species of Pacific and Atlantic wrasses (family Labridae). Mar. Biol. 90: 317–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Victor, B.C. 1991. Settlement strategies and biogeography of reef fishes. pp. 231–260. In: P.F. Sale (ed.) The Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs, Academic Press, San Diego.

    Google Scholar 

  • Victor, B.C. & G.M. Wellington. 2000. Endemism and the pelagic larval duration of reef fishes in the eastern Pacific Ocean. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 205: 241–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wellington, G.M. & B.C. Victor. 1989. Planktonic larval duration of one hundred species of Pacific and Atlantic damselfishes (Pomacentridae). Mar. Biol. 101: 557–567.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D.McB., E. Wolanski & J.C. Andrews. 1984. Transport mechanisms and the potential movement of planktonic larvae in the central region of the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 3: 229–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolanski, E. & J. Sarenski. 1997. Larvae dispersion in coral reefs and mangroves. Amer. Sci. 85: 236–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolanski, E., P.J. Doherty & J. Carelton. 1997. Directional swimming of fish larvae determines connectivity of fish populations on the Great Barrier Reef. Naturwiss. 84: 262–268.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Ichthyology, and Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Research, Australian Museum, 6 College Street, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia

    Jeffrey M. Leis

Authors
  1. Jeffrey M. Leis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Leis, J.M. Pacific Coral-reef Fishes: The Implications of Behaviour and Ecology of Larvae for Biodiversity and Conservation, and a Reassessment of the Open Population Paradigm. Environmental Biology of Fishes 65, 199–208 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020096720543

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020096720543

Search

Navigation