Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Preferred Difficulty and Subjective Probability in Different Action Phases

  • Published:
Motivation and Emotion Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Drawing on Gollwitzer's deliberative–implemental mindset distinction (P. M. Gollwitzer, 1990), it was predicted that people who are deliberating on different actions or goals would be more cautious or more realistic in their expectation of success in subsequent tasks than people who are going to implement a chosen action or goal. Participants were given a choice between different test-materials. They were interrupted before (deliberative) or immediately after decision-making (implemental). They then either had to choose between various levels of difficulty within one type of task (Experiment 1) or they had to predict their own future performance (Experiment 2). The results showed that deliberative participants preferred less difficult tasks and overestimated their probability of success less than implemental participants. In addition, deliberative participants referred more than implemental participants to their past performance when selecting levels of difficulty or predicting future performance; however, the two groups did not differ in actual performance. Taken together, the findings suggest that people are more realistic in a deliberative than in an implemental state of mind. The present studies extend prior research because for the first time they document mindset effects on peoples' estimates concerning their future performance in the achievement domain.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Armor, D. A., & Taylor, S. E. (1998). Situated optimism: Specific outcome expectancies and self-regulation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 30, pp. 309–379). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspinwall, L. G., & Richter, L. (1999). Optimism and self-mastery predict more rapid disengagement from unsolvable tasks in the presence of alternatives. Motivation and Emotion, 23(3), 221–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspinwall, L. G., Richter, L., & Hoffman, R. R. (2001). Understanding how optimism works: An examination of optimists' adaptive moderation of belief and behavior. In E. C. Chang (Ed.), Optimism and pessimism: Implication for theory, research, and practice (pp. 217–238). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Hillel, M., & Budescu, D. (1995). The elusive wishful thinking effect. Thinking and reasoning, 1, 71–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129–148.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Branthwaite, A. (1974). A note comparing three measures of subjective probability, their validity and reliability. Acta Psychologica, 38, 337–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. D., & Fairey, P. J. (1985). Effects of self-esteem, hypothetical explanations and verbalizations of expectations on future performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(5), 1097–1111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality-social, clinical, and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 111–135.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., Hansel, C. E. M., & Walker, D. B. (1960). The time taken to decide as a measure of subjective probability. Acta Psychologica, 17, 177–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gagné, F. M., & Lydon, J. E. (2001). Mind-set and close relationships: When bias leads to (in)accurate predictions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 85–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M. (1990). Action phases and mind-sets. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and social cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 53–91.) New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M., & Bayer, U. (1999). Deliberative versus implemental mindsets in the control of action. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M., Heckhausen, H., & Steller, B. (1990). Deliberative vs. implemental mind-sets: Cognitive tuning toward congruous thoughts and information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1119–1127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P. M., & Kinney, R. F. (1989). Effects of deliberative and implemental mindsets on illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 531–542.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenhouse, S. W., & Geisser, S. (1959). On methods in the analysis of profile data. Psychometrika, 24, 95–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, H. (1986). Why some time out might benefit achievement motivation research. In J. H. L. van den Bercken, Th. C. M. Bergen, & E. E. J. De Bruyn (Eds.), Achievement and task motivation. Lisse-Holland: Swets & Zeitlinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, H. (1991). Motivation and action. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational vs. volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11, 101–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, R. A. (1994). The effects of choice and incentives on the overestimation of future performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 57(2), 210–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, R. A., & Sniezek, J. A. (1993). Situational factors affecting judgments of future performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 54(1), 104–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horn, W. (1962). Leistungsprüfsystem [Achievement test system]. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janoff-Bulman, R., & Brickman, P. (1982). Expectations and what people learn from failure. In N. T. Feather (Ed.), Expectations and actions: Expectancy-value models in psychology (pp. 207–237). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kukla, A. (1972). Foundations of an attributional theory of performance. Psychological Review, 79, 454–470.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mento, A. J., Cartledge, N. D., & Locke, E. A. (1980). Maryland vs. Michigan vs. Minnesota: Another look at the relationship of expectancy and goal difficulty to task performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 25, 419–440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, W. U. (1973). Anstrengungsintention in Abhängigkeit von Begabungseinschätzung und Aufgabenschwierigkeit [Intended effort depending on self-concept of ability and task difficulty]. Archiv für Psychologie, 125, 245–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perloff, L. S. (1987). Social comparison and illusions of invulnerability to negative life events. In C. R. Snyder & C. E. Ford (Eds.), Coping with negative life events: Clinical and social psychological perspectives (pp. 217–242). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puca, R. M., & Schmalt, H.-D. (2001). The influence of the achievement motive on spontaneous thoughts in pre-and postdecisional action phases. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 302–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1988). A model of behavioral self-regulation: Translating intention into action. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 303–346.) New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K. (1972). The relationship between estimated probabilities and achievement motivation. Acta Psychologica, 36, 408–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K. (1973). Motivation unter Erfolgsrisiko [Motivation when success is uncertain]. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K. (1974). Subjektive Unsicherheit und Aufgabenwahl [Subjective uncertainty and task-choice]. Archiv für Psychologie, 126, 147–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shultz, T. R., Leveille, E., & Lepper, M. R. (1999). Free choice and cognitive dissonance revisited: Choosing "lesser evils" versus "greater goods." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(1), 40–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193–210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1994). Positive illusions and well-being revisited: Separating fact from fiction. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 21–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1995). Effect of mindsets on positive illusions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 213–226.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, S. C., Armstrong, W., & Thomas, C. (1998). Illusions of control, underestimations, and accuracy: A control heuristic explanation. Psychological Bulletin, 123(2), 143–161.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trope, Y. (1986). Self-enhancement and self-assessment in achievement behavior. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition. Foundations of social behavior (pp. 350–378). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, N. D. (1980). Unrealistic optimism about future life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 806–820.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, R. W., & Brehm, J. W. (1989). Energization and goal attractiveness. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 169–210). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman, M., & Lubin, B. (1965). Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist: Today form. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. General and Applied Psychology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany

    Rosa Maria Puca

Authors
  1. Rosa Maria Puca
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Puca, R.M. Preferred Difficulty and Subjective Probability in Different Action Phases. Motivation and Emotion 25, 307–326 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014815716476

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014815716476

Search

Navigation