Skip to main content

Gender Differences in Managerial Careers: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow

Journal of Business Ethics volume 37, pages 5–24 (2002)Cite this article

Abstract

This longitudinal study of mid-career managers compared the career progression of men and women during the 1990's. Unlike the subjects of many earlier studies, these men and women had similar education and experience profiles. Womens income changes were less than men's and reflected the greater financial strides and greater returns from promotions for men prior to 1995. The income gaps between men and women were explained by gender differences in career determinants, such as work hours, career interruptions, and having a nonemployed spouse. There was evidence of subtle forms of workplace discrimination against women in the past but not over the most recent four-year period. Women's family situations, however, continued to present obstacles to progression. In addition, a recent decline in women's priorities for promotion, a predictor of actual promotions, signalled an impending decrease in their rate of promotion relative to men's.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Access options

Buy single article

Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Price includes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

References

  • Aronson, E.: 1972, The Social Animal (W. H. Freeman & Company, San Francisco, CA).

    Google Scholar 

  • Baril, G. L., N. Elbert, S. Mahar-Potter and G. C. Reavy: 1989, ‘Are Androgynous Managers Really More Effective?’, Group & Organization Studies 14, 234–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker, P. E. and P. Moen: 1999, ‘Scaling Back: Dual-Earner Couples' Work-family Strategies’, Journal of Marriage and the Family 61, 995–1007.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L.: 1974, ‘The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny’, Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology 42, 155–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bielby, W. T. and J. N. Baron: 1986, ‘Men and Women at Work: Sex Segregation and Statistical Discrimination’, American Journal of Sociology 91, 759–799.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blair-Loy, M.: 1999, ‘Career Patterns of Executive Women in Finance: An Optimal Matching Analysis’, American Journal of Sociology 104, 1346–1397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blum, T. C., D. L. Fields and J. S. Goodman: 1994, ‘Organization-level Determinants of Women in Management’, Academy of Management Journal 37, 241–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brett, J. M. and L. K. Stroh: 1997, ‘Jumping Ship: Who Benefits from an External Labor Market Career Strategy?’, Journal of Applied Psychology 82, 331–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, D.: 1971, The Attraction Paradigm (Academic Press, New York, NY).

  • Cohen, J. and P. Cohen: 1975, Applied Multiple Regression/correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, T. H. and S. M. Nkomo: 1991, ‘A Race and Gender-group Analysis of the Early Career Experience of M.B.A.s’, Work and Occupations 13, 431–446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deaux, K. and T. Emswiller: 1974, ‘Explanations of Successful Performance on Sex-linked Tasks: What is Skill for the Male is Luck for the Female’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29, 80–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dreher, G. F. and T. Cox: 2000, ‘Labor Market Mobility and Cash Compensation: The Moderating Effects of Race and Gender’, Academy of Management Journal 43, 890–900.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubno, P.: 1985, ‘Attitudes toward Women Executives’, Academy of Management Journal 28, 235–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eichinger, J., L. J. Heifetz and C. Ingraham: 1991, ‘Situational Shifts in Sex Role Orientation: Correlates of Work Satisfaction and Burnout among Women in Special Education’, Sex Roles 25, 425–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagenson, E. A.: 1989, ‘The Mentor Advantage: Perceived Career/job Experiences of Proteges versus Non-proteges’, Journal of Organizational Behavior 10, 309–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerhart, B.: 1990, ‘Gender Differences in Current and Starting Salaries: The Role of Performance, College Major, and Job Title’, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 43, 418–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartman, S. J., R. W. Griffeth, M. D. Crino and O. J. Harris: 1991, ‘Gender-based Influences: The Promotion Recommendation’, Sex Roles 25, 285–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, M. E.: 1983, ‘Sex Bias in Work Settings: The Lack of Fit Model', in L. L. Cummings and B. M. Staw (eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 5 ( JAI Press, Greenwich, CT), pp. 269–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hull, K. E. and R. L. Nelson: 2000, ‘Assimilation, Choice, or Constraint? Testing Theories of Gender Differences in the Careers of Lawyers’, Social Forces 79, 229–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huffman, M. L. and S. C. Velasco: 1997, ‘When More is Less: Sex Composition, Organizations, and Earnings in U.S. Firms’, Work and Occupations 24, 214–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, L. A.: 1989, ‘Relative Deprivation and the Gender Wage Gap’, Journal of Social Issues 45, 117–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, J. A.: 1992, ‘Women's Entry into Management: Trends in Earnings, Authority, and Values among Salaried Managers’, Administrative Science Quarterly 37, 282–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaskolka, G., J. M. Beyer and H. M. Trice: 1985, ‘Measuring and Predicting Managerial Success’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 26, 189–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Judge, T. A., D. M. Cable, J. W. Boudreau and R. S. Bretz: 1995, ‘An Empirical Investigation of the Predictors of Executive Career Success’, Personnel Psychology 48, 485–519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiesler, S. B.: 1975, ‘Actuarial Prejudice toward Women and Its Implications’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology 5, 201–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirchmeyer, C.: 1998, ‘Determinants of Managerial Career Success: Evidence and Explanation of Male/female Differences’, Journal of Management 24, 637–692.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koberg. C. S., D. Chappell and R.C. Ringer: 1994, ‘Correlates and Consequences of Protege Mentoring in a Large Hospital’, Group & Organization Management 19, 219–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Konrad, A. M., E. Corrigall, P. A. Lieb and J. E. Ritchie: 2000, ‘Sex Differences in Job Attribute Preferences among Managers and Business Students’, Group & Organization Management 25, 108–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kram, K. E.: 1988, Mentoring at Work: Developmental Relationships in Organizational Life (University Press of America, Lanham, MD).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kram, K. E. and L. A. Isabella: 1985, ‘Mentoring Alternative: The Role of Peer Relationships in Career Development’, Academy of Management Journal 28, 110–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landau, J. and M. B. Arthur: 1992, ‘The Relationship of Marital Status, Spouse's Career Status, and Gender to Salary Level’, Sex Roles 27, 665–681.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lubinski, D., A. Tellegen and J. N. Butcher: 1983, ‘Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny Viewed and Assessed as Distinct Concepts’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44, 428–439.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyness, K. S. and M. K. Judiesch: 1999, ‘Are Women More Likely to be Hired or Promoted into Managerial Positions?’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 54, 158–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyness, K. S. and D. E. Thomspon: 1997, ‘Above the Glass Ceiling? A Comparison of Matched Samples of Female and Male Executives’, Journal of Applied Psychology 82, 359–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Major, B.: 1989, ‘Gender Differences in Comparisons and Entitlement: Implications for Comparable Worth’, Journal of Social Issues 45, 99–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marini, M. M.: 1989, ‘Sex Differences in Earnings in the United States’, Annual Review of Sociology 15, 343–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marks, S. R.: 1977, ‘Multiple Roles and Role Strain. Some Notes on Human Energy, Time and Commitment’, American Sociological Review 42, 921–936.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melamed: 1995, ‘Career Success: The Moderating Effect of Gender’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 47, 35–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, A. M. and M. A. V. Glinow: 1990, ‘Women and Minorities in Management’, American Psychologist 45, 200–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Motowidlo, S. J.: 1982, ‘Sex Role Orientation and Behavior in a Work Setting’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42, 935–945.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ornstein, S. and L. Isabella: 1990, ‘Age vs Stage Models of Career Attitudes of Women: A Partial Replication and Extension’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 36, 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ott, M. E.: 1989, ‘Effects of the Male-female Ratio at Work: Policemen and Male Nurses’, Psychology of Women Quarterly 13, 41–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pfeffer, J. and J. Ross: 1982, ‘The Effects of Marriage and a Working Wife on Occupational and Wage Attainment’, Administrative Science Quarterly 27, 66–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, G. N. and L. A. Mainiero: 1992, ‘Crosscurrents in the River of Time: Conceptualizing the Complexities of Women's Careers’, Journal of Management 18, 215–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. and J. L. Cotton: 1991, ‘Easier said than Done: Gender Differences in Perceived Barriers to Gaining a Mentor’, Academy of Management Journal 34, 939–951.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. and D. B. McFarlin: 1990, ‘Perceptions of Mentor Roles in Cross-gender Mentoring Relationships’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 37, 321–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragins, B. R. and E. Sundstrom: 1989, ‘Gender and Power in Organizations: A Longitudinal Perspective’, Psychological Bulletin 105, 51–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reitman, F. and J. A. Schneer: 2000, 'Is the Traditional Career Path for Managers Really Gone? Evidence from a Longitudinal Study of MBAs', paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Toronto.

  • Sackett, P. R., C. L. Z. Dubois and A. W. Noe: 1991, ‘Tokenism in Performance Evaluation: The Effects of Work Group Representation on Male-female and White-black Differences in Performance Ratings’, Journal of Applied Psychology 76, 263–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneer, J. A. and F. Reitman: 1990, ‘Effects of Employment Gaps on the Careers of M.B.A.s: More Damaging for Men than for Women?’, Academy of Management Journal 33, 391–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneer, J. A. and F. Reitman: 1993, ‘Effects of Alternative Family Structures on Managerial Career Paths’, Academy of Management Journal 36, 830–843.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneer, J. A. and F. Reitman: 1995, ‘The Impact of Gender as Managerial Careers Unfold’, Journal of Vocational Behavior 47, 209–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shenhav, Y.: 1992, ‘Entrance of Blacks and Women into Managerial Positions in Scientific and Engineering Occupations: A Longitudinal Analysis’, Academy of Management Journal 35, 889–901.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, L. P. and W. B. Gudykunst: 1982, ‘Differential Factors Influencing Hierarchical Level and Number of Promotions of Males and Females within an Organization’, Academy of Management Journal 25, 586–597.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stroh, L. K., J. M. Brett and A. H. Reilly: 1992, ‘All the Right Stuff: A Comparison of Female and Male Managers' Career Progression’, Journal of Applied Psychology 77, 251–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tharenou, P. and D. Conroy: 1994, ‘Men and Women Managers' Advancement: Personal or Situational Determinants?’, Applied Psychology: An International Review 43, 5–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tharenou, P., S. Latimer and D. Conroy: 1994, ‘How to Make it to the Top? An Examination of Influences on Women's and Men's managerial Advancement’, Academy of Management Journal 37, 899–931.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, A. S., T. D. Egan and C. A. O'Reilly: 1992, ‘Being Different: Relational Demography and Organizational Attachment’, Administrative Science Quarterly 37, 549–579.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, A. S. and C. A. O'Reilly: 1989, ‘Beyond Simple Demographic Effects: The Importance of Relational Demography in Superior-subordinate Dyads’, Academy of Management Journal 32, 402–423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turban, D. B. and T. W. Dougherty: 1994, ‘Role of Protege Personality in Receipt of Mentoring and Career Success’, Academy of Management Journal 37, 688–702.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C.: 1982, ‘Toward a Redefinition of the Social Group', in H. Tajfel (ed.), Social Identity and Intergroup Relations (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge).

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitely, W., T. W. Dougherty and G. G. Dreher: 1991, ‘Relationship of Career Mentoring and Socioeconomic Origin to Managers' and Professionals' Early Career Progress’, Academy of Management Journal 34, 331–351.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Business Administration, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, 48202, U.S.A.

    Catherine Kirchmeyer

Authors
  1. Catherine Kirchmeyer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kirchmeyer, C. Gender Differences in Managerial Careers: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. Journal of Business Ethics 37, 5–24 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014721900246

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014721900246

  • career advancement
  • managerial careers
  • women's careers