Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Testing Gaia: The Effect of Life on Earth's Habitability and Regulation

  • Published:
Climatic Change Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The Gaia theory proposes that the Earth system self-regulates in a habitable state. Here the effect of life on the state of the Earth and its response to forcing and perturbation is considered. It is argued that life has not survived for >3.8 billion years purely by chance, rather the Earth system possesses regulatory mechanisms. The Earth system is more resistant and resilient to many (but not all) perturbations with life present and the Earth is predicted to remain inhabitable for longer with life present than it would without. With only one case to study, it is difficult to test whether the Earth exhibits such regulation by chance or because regulatory outcomes of life-environment interaction are more probable. The search for life on extra-solar planets and ‘artificial life’ simulations of virtual worlds may increase the sample size. Theoretical principles suggest that regulation is a probable outcome of life-environment coupling, and on Earth it appears that there may be an innate tendency for regulatory properties to accumulate and strengthen as the biota evolves.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Archer, D., Kheshgi, H., and Maier-Reimer, E.: 1998, ‘Dynamics of Fossil Fuel CO2 Neutralization by Marine CaCO3’, Global Biogeochem. Cycles 12, 259–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berner, R. A.: 1994, ‘Geocarb II: A Revised Model of Atmospheric CO2 over Phanerozoic Time’, Amer. J. Sci. 294, 56–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berner, R. A. and Caldeira, K.: 1998, ‘The Need for Mass Balance and Feedback in the Geochemical Carbon Cycle’, Geology 25, 955–956.

    Google Scholar 

  • Budyko, M. I.: 1968, ‘The Effect of Solar Radiation Variations on the Climate of the Earth’, Tellus 21, 611–619.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caldeira, K. and Kasting, J. F.: 1992b, ‘The Life Span of the Biosphere Revisited’, Nature 360, 721–723.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cloud, P.: 1976, ‘Beginnings of Biospheric Evolution and their Biogeochemical Consequences’, Paleobiology 2, 351–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • D'Hondt, S., Donaghay, P., Zachos, J. C., Luttenberg, D., and Lindinger, M.: 1998, ‘Organic Carbon Fluxes and Ecological Recovery from the Cretaceous-Tertiary Mass Extinction’, Science 282, 276–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickens, G. R.: 1999, ‘The Blast in the Past’, Nature 401, 752–754.

    Google Scholar 

  • Downing, K. and Zvirinsky, P.: 1999, ‘The Simulated Evolution of Biochemical Guilds: Reconciling Gaia Theory and Natural Selection’, Artif. Life 5, 291–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, M. R., Hauer, C., Stack, R. F., Eisele, L. E., and MacColl, R.: 1997, ‘Thermophilic C-Phycocyanin: Effect of Temperature, Monomer Stability, and Structure’, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Bioenergetics 1321, 157–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, D. A., Beukes, N. J., and Kirschvink, J. L.: 1997, ‘Low-Latitude Glaciation in the Palaeoproterozoic Era’, Nature 386, 262–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franck, S., Block, A., Bloh, W. V., Bounama, C., Schellnhuber, H. J., and Svirezhev, Y.: 2000, ‘Reduction of Biosphere Life Span as a Consequence of Geodynamics’, Tellus 52, 94–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W. D.: 1995, ‘Ecology in the Large: Gaia and Genghis Khan’, J. Appl. Ecol. 32, 451–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Han, T.-M. and Runnegar, B.: 1992, ‘Megascopic Eukaryotic Algae from the 2.1-Billion-Year-Old Negaunee Iron-Formation, Michigan’, Science 257, 232–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, P. F., Kaufman, A. J., Halverson, G. P., and Schrag, D. P.: 1998, ‘A Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth’, Science 281, 1342–1346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, W. T., Crowley, T. J., Baum, S. K., and Peltier, W. R.: 2000, ‘Neoproterozoic “Snowball Earth” Simulations with a Coupled Climate/Ice-Sheet Model’, Nature 405, 425–429.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kasting, J. F.: 1989, ‘Long-Term Stability of the Earth's Climate’, Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. (Global and Planetary Change Section) 75, 83–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kasting, J. F.: 1993, ‘Earth's Early Atmosphere’, Science 259, 920–926.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kasting, J. F., Whitmore, D. P., and Reynolds, R. T.: 1993, ‘Habitable Zones around Main Sequence Stars’, Icarus 101, 108–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleidon, A.: 2002, ‘Testing the Effect of Life on Earth's Functioning: How Gaian Is the Earth System?’, Clim. Change, this issue.

  • Kuhn, T. S.: 1962, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Legrand, M.: 1997, ‘Ice-Core Records of Atmospheric Sulphur’, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc.: Biol. Sci. 352, 241–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lenton, T.: 1999, ‘Testing Gaia Theory with Artificial Life’, in 5th European Conference on Artificial Life, Springer, Lausanne, Switzerland, pp. 9–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lenton, T. M.: 1998, ‘Gaia and Natural Selection’, Nature 394, 439–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lenton, T. M.: 2000, ‘Land and Ocean Carbon Cycle Feedback Effects on Global Warming in a Simple Earth System Model’, Tellus 52B, 1159–1188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lenton, T. M.: 2001, ‘The Role of Land Plants, Phosphorus Weathering and Fire in the Rise and Regulation of Atmospheric Oxygen’, Global Change Biol., in press.

  • Lenton, T. M. and von Bloh, W.: 2001, ‘Biotic Feedback Extends the Life Span of the Biosphere’, Geophys. Res. Lett. 28, 1715–1718.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lenton, T. M. and Watson, A. J.: 2000a, ‘Redfield Revisited: 1. Regulation of Nitrate, Phosphate and Oxygen in the Ocean’, Global Biogeochem. Cycles 14, 225–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lenton, T. M. and Watson, A. J.: 2000b, ‘Redfield Revisited: 2.What Regulates the Oxygen Content of the Atmosphere?’, Global Biogeochem. Cycles 14, 249–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Longhurst, A.: 1998, ‘Too Intelligent for Our Own Good’, Nature 395, 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovelock, J. E.: 1972, ‘Gaia as Seen Through the Atmosphere’, Atmos. Environ. 6, 579–580.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovelock, J. E.: 1975, ‘Thermodynamics and the Recognition of Alien Biospheres’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 189, 167–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovelock, J. E.: 1979, Gaia – A New Look at Life on Earth, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovelock, J. E.: 1988, The Ages of Gaia – A Biography of Our Living Earth, W.W. Norton and Co., New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovelock, J. E.: 1991, Gaia – The Practical Science of Planetary Medicine, Gaia Books, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovelock, J. E. and Margulis, L. M.: 1974a, ‘Atmospheric Homeostasis by and for the Biosphere: The Gaia Hypothesis’, Tellus 26, 2–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michel, P., Farinella, P., and Froeschlé, C.: 1996, ‘The Orbital Evolution of the Asteroid Eros and Implications for Collision with the Earth’, Nature 380, 689–691.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mojzsis, S. J., Arrhenius, G., McKeegan, K. D., Harrison, T. M., Nutman, A. P., and Friend, C. R. L.: 1996, ‘Evidence for Life on Earth before 3,800 Million Years Ago’, Nature 384, 55–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nealson, K. H. and Conrad, P. G.: 1999, ‘Life: Past, Present and Future’, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 354, 1923–1939.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noblet, de, N. I., Prentice, I. C., Joussaume, S., Texier, D., Botta, A., and Haxeltine, A.: 1996, ‘Possible Role of Atmosphere-Biosphere Interactions in Triggering the Last Glaciation’, Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 3191–3194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, R. D. and Röhl, U.: 1999, ‘Carbon Cycling and Chronology of Climate Warming during the Palaeocene/Eocene Transition’, Nature 401, 775–778.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavlov, A. A., Kasting, J. F., Brown, L. L., Rages, K. A., and Freedman, R.: 2000, ‘Greenhouse Warming by CH4 in the Atmosphere of Early Earth’, J. Geophys. Res. 105, 11981–11990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petit, J. R., et al.: 1999, ‘Climate and Atmospheric History of the Past 420,000 Years from the Vostok Ice Core, Antarctica’, Nature 399, 429–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pimm, S. L.: 1984, ‘The Complexity and Stability of Ecosystems’, Nature 307, 321–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Runnegar, B.: 2000, ‘Loophole for Snowball Earth’, Nature 405, 403–404.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rye, R. and Holland, H. D.: 1998, ‘Paleosols and the Evolution of Atmospheric Oxygen: A Critical Review’, Amer. J. Sci. 298, 621–672.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schellnhuber, H. J.: 1999, ‘Earth System’ Analysis and the Second Copernican Revolution', Nature 402, C19–C23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schidlowski, M.: 1988, ‘A 3,800-Million-Year Isotopic Record of Life from Carbon in Sedimentary Rocks’, Nature 333, 313–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartzman, D.: 1999, Life, Temperature and the Earth: The Self-Organizing Biosphere, Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartzman, D. W. and Volk, T.: 1989, ‘Biotic Enhancement of Weathering and the Habitability of Earth’, Nature 340, 457–460.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, J. C. G., Hays, P. B., and Kasting, J. F.: 1981, ‘A Negative Feedback Mechanism for the Long-Term Stabilisation of Earth's Surface Temperature’, J. Geophys. Res. 86, 9776–9782.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, A. J.: 1999, ‘Coevolution of the Earth's Environment and Life: Goldilocks, Gaia and the Anthropic Principle’, in Craig, G. Y. and Hull, J. H. (eds.), James Hutton – Present and Future, Geological Society, London, pp. 75–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, A. J. and Lovelock, J. E.: 1983, ‘Biological Homeostasis of the Global Environment: The Parable of Daisyworld’, Tellus 35B, 284–289. (Received 28 February 2001; in revised form 2 April 2001)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Edinburgh Research Station, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0QB, U.K.

    Timothy M. Lenton

Authors
  1. Timothy M. Lenton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lenton, T.M. Testing Gaia: The Effect of Life on Earth's Habitability and Regulation. Climatic Change 52, 409–422 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014201801949

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014201801949

Keywords

Search

Navigation