Abstract
The Eurasian and North American beavers aresimilar in their ecological requirements, andrequire water deep enough to cover the entranceto their lodge or burrow. A food cache isoften built next to the lodge or burrow, exceptin some southern areas. On small streams (upto fourth order) dams are frequently built tocreate an impoundment, generally on lowgradient streams, although at high populationdensities dams may be built on steeper gradientstreams. On large rivers or in lakes, simply alodge with its food cache may be built. Thebeaver is a keystone riparian species in thatthe landscape can be considerably altered byits activities and a new ecosystem created. The stream above a dam changes from lotic tolentic conditions. There are hydrological,temperature and chemical changes, depending ontypes of dams and locations. Although theinvertebrates may be fewer per unit area, totalnumber of organisms increases, and diversityincreases as the pond ages. In cool, smallorder streams, the impoundments provide betterhabitat for large trout, possibly creatingangling opportunities. However, at sites wherewater temperatures rise above their optimumpreferenda, salmonids may be replaced by otherspecies, such as cyprinids, catostomids,percids or centrarchids. As the habitat isaltered, interactions amongst co-habiting species may change. For example, brown troutor brook trout (charr) may become dominant overAtlantic salmon. In warm water streams theremay be a shift from faster water dwellers topond dwellers. Larger bodied fish, such ascentrarchids and esocids may displace smallerbodied fish such as cyprinids, providing betterangling. Refugia from high or low water flows,low oxygen or high temperatures, may beprovided in adverse conditions in winter orsummer. However, in some cases dams areobstructions to upstream migration, andsediment may be deposited in former spawningareas. The practicality and benefits ofintroducing or restoring beaver populationswill vary according to location, and should beconsidered in conjunction with a managementplan to control their densities.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, A.K. (1949) Beaver vs. trout. Mich. Conserv. Mar- Apr., pp. 15–17.
Alabaster, J.S. and Lloyd, R. (1980) Water Quality Criteria for Freshwater Fish. Butterworths, London, 297 pp.
Aldous, S.E. (1938) Beaver food utilisation studies. J. Wildl. Manage. 2, 215–222.
Aleksiuk, M. (1970) The seasonal food regime of Arctic beavers. Ecology 51, 264–270.
Alexander, M.D. (1998) Effects of beaver (Castor canadensis) impoundments on stream temperature and fish community species composition and growth in selected tributaries of Miramichi River, New Brunswick. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. no. 2227, 53 pp.
Anon. (1980) Stream enhancement guide. Fisheries and Oceans, Govt. Canada, 73 pp.
Apple, L.L., Smith, B.H., Dunder, J.D. and Baker, B.W. (1984) The use of beavers for riparian/aquatic habitat restoration of cold desert gulley cut stream systems in southwestern Wyoming. In Proceedings, American Fisheries Society/Wildlife Society Joint Chapter Meeting, Feb. 8- 10. Logan, Utah, pp. 123–130.
Avery, E.L. (1983) A bibliography of beaver, trout, wildlife and forest relationships. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Technical Bulletin No. 137. Madison.
Avery, E.L. (1992) Effects of removing beaver dams upon a northern Wisconsin brook trout stream. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. Study No. 406, pp. 1–59.
Bailey, R. and Stephens, R.F. (1951) Effects of beavers on fish. West Virginia Conservation Sept., 11- 16.
Balodis, M.M. (1994) Beaver population of Latvia: history, development and management. Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences B. no. 7/8(564/565), pp. 122–127.
Balon, E.K. and Chadwick, E.M.P. (1979) Reclamation of a perch lake: a case study using density estimates and the guild concept. Arch. Hydrobiol. 85, 543–547.
Barnes, D.M. and Mallik, A.U. (1996) Use of woody plants in construction of beaver dams in northern Ontario. Can. J. Zool. 74, 1781–1786.
Barnes, W.J. and Dibble, E. (1988) The effects of beaver in riverbank forest succession. Can. J. Bot. 66, 40–44.
Basey, J.M., Jenkins, S.H. and Busher, P.E. (1988) Optimal central place foraging by beavers: Tree-size selection in relation to defensive chemicals of quaking aspen. Oecologia 76, 278–282.
Beard, E.B. (1953) The importance of beaver in waterfowl management at the Seney National Wildlife Refuge. J. Wildl. Manage. 17, 398-436.
Behmer, D.J. and Hawkins, C.P. (1986) Effects of overhead canopy on macroinvertebrate production in a Utah stream. Freshwater Biol. 16, 287–300.
Beier, P. and Barrett, R.H. (1987) Beaver habitat use and impact in Truckee River Basin, California. J. Wildl. Manage. 51, 794–799.
Belovsky, G.E. (1984) Summer diet optimization by beavers. Am. Mid. Nat. 111, 209–222.
Bergstrom, D. (1985) Beavers: biologists “rediscover” a natural resource. Forestry Research West. United States Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. October 1985. 5 pp.
Bilby, R.E. and Bisson, P.A. (1992) Allochthonous versus autochthonous organic matter contributions to the trophic support of fish populations in clear-cut and old-growth forested streams. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49, 540–551.
Boyce, M. (1974) Beaver population ecology in interior Alaska. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. 161 pp.
Bradt, G.W. (1947) Michigan beaver management. Mich. Dep. Conserv. Game Div. 56 pp.
Brenner, F.J. (1962) Foods consumed by beavers in Crawford County, Pennsylvania. J. Wildl. Manage. 26, 104–107.
Brooks, R.P., Fleming, M.W. and Kennelly, J.J. (1980) Beaver colony response to fertility control: evaluating a concept. J. Wildl. Manage. 44, 568–575.
Bryant, M.D. (1984) The role of beaver dams as coho salmon habitat in southeast Alaska streams. In: Walton, J.M. and Houston, D.B. (eds.), Proceedings of the Olympic Wild Fish Conference. Fisheries Technology Programme. Peninsula College, Port Angeles, Washington, pp. 183–192.
Bump, G. (1941) Problems of beaver management in a fish and game programme. Sixth North American Wildlife Conference. February, pp. 300–306.
Burns, D.A. and McDonnell (1998) Effects of a beaver pond on runoff processes: comparison of two headwater catchments. J. Hydrobiol. 205, 248–264.
Butler, D.R. (1991) Beavers as agents of biogeomorphic change: A review and suggestions for teaching exercises. J. Geogr. 90, 210–217.
Butler, D.R. (1995) Zoogeomorphology: Animals as Geomorphic Agents. Cambridge University Press. New York, NY, 219 pp.
Butler, D.R. and Malanson, G.P. (1995) Sedimentation rates and patterns in beaver ponds in a mountain environment. Geomorphology 13, 255–269.
Call, M.W. (1966) Beaver pond ecology and beaver-trout relationships in southeastern Wyoming. Univ. Wyoming, Wyoming Game and Fish Commission, 296 pp.
Chisholm, I.M., Hubert, W.A. and Wesche, T.A. (1987) Winter stream conditions and use of habitat by brook trout in high elevation Wyoming streams. Trans. Am. Fis. Soc. 116, 176–184.
Cirmo, C.P. and Driscoll, C.T. (1993) Beaver pond biogeochemistry: acid neutralizing capacity generation in a headwater wetland. Wetlands 13, 277–292.
Clifford, H.F., Wiley, G.M. and Casey, R.J. (1993) Macroinvertebrates of a beaver-altered boreal stream of Alberta, Canada, with special reference to the fauna of the dams. Can. J. Zool. 71, 1439–1447.
Coleman, R.L. and Dahm C.N. (1990) Stream geomorphology: effects on periphyton standing crop and primary production. J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc. 9, 293–302.
Collen, P. (1997) Review of the potential impact of re-introducing Eurasian beaver Castor fiber L. on the ecology and movement of native fishes, and the likely implications for current angling practices in Scotland. Scottish Natural Heritage Review No. 86, 53 pp.
Cook, D.B. (1940) Beaver-trout relations. J. Mammal. 21, 397–401.
Courcelles, R. and Nault, R. (1983) Beaver programs in the James Bay area, Quebec, Canada. Acta Zool. Fenn. 174, 129–131.
Cunjak, R.A. (1996) Winter habitat of selected stream fishes and potential impacts from land-use activity. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53 (Suppl.1), 267–282.
Cunjak, R.A., Caissie, D., El-Jabi, N., Hardie, P., Conlon, J.M., Pollock, T.L., Giberson, D.J. and Komadina-Douthwright, S.M. (1993) The Catamaran Brook (New Brunswick) Habitat Research Project: biological, physical and chemical conditions (1990- 1992). Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1914, 81 pp.
Cunjak, R.A. and Therrien, J. (1998) Inter-stage survival of wild juvenile Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Fish. Manage. Ecol. 5, 209–223.
Curry-Lindahl, K. (1967) The beaver, Castor fiber Linnaeus, 1758 in Sweden-extermination and reappearance. Acta Theriol. 12, 1–15.
Dahm, C.N. and Sedell, J.R. (1986) The role of beaver on nutrient cycling in streams. J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. Sci. 18, 32.
Dahm, C.N., Trotter, E.H. and Sedell, J.R. (1987) Role of anaerobic zones and processes in stream ecosystem productivity. In: Averett, R.C. and McKnight, D.M. (eds.), Chemical Quality of Water and the Hydrologic Cycle. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Mich., pp. 157–178.
Danilov, P.I. (1992) Introduction of North-American semiaquatic mammals in Karelia and its consequences for aboriginal species. Semiaquatische Säugetiere., Wiss. Beitr. Univ. Halle, pp. 267–276.
Danilov, P.I. (1995) Canadian and Eurasian beavers in Russian North-west (distribution, number, comparative ecology). The third Nordic beaver symposium. Helsinki, Finland, pp. 10–16.
Danilov, P.I. and Kan'shiev, V.Ya. (1982) Some morphological and ecological features of the Eurasian and Canadian beaver in the USSR north west. Fauna: ecologiya ptic (mlekopitajvscic) Severo-Zapada SSSR, Petrozavodsk, pp. 109–123.
Danilov, P.I. and Kan'shiev, V.Ya. (1983) The state of populations and ecological characteristics of European (Castor fiber L.) and Canadian (Castor canadensis Kuhl.) beavers in the northwestern USSR. Acta Zool. Fennica. 174, 95–97.
Davis, J.C. (1975) Waterborne dissolved oxygen requirements and criteria with particular emphasis on the Canadian environment. Associate Committee on Scientific Criteria for Quality, National Research Council of Canada, Ottowa. NRCC No. 14100, 111 pp.
Davis, J.W. (1986) Options for managing livestock in riparian habitats. Trans. 51st N. A. Wildl. and Nat. Res. Conf. 290–297.
de Almeida, M.H. (1987) Nuisance furbearer damage control in urban and suburban areas. In: Novak, M., Baker, J.A., Obbard, M.E. and Malloch, B. (eds.) Wild Furbearer Management and Conservation in North America. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Toronto, pp. 996–1006.
Devito, K.J. and Dillon, P.J. (1993) Importance of runoff and winter anoxia to the P and N dynamics of a beaver pond. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50, 2222–2234.
Dillon, P.J., Molot, L.A. and Scheider, W.A. (1991) Phosphorus and nitrogen export from forested stream catchments in central Ontario. J. Environ. Qual. 20, 857–864.
Dubuc, L.J., Krohn, W.B. and Owen, R.B. (1990) Predicting occurrence of river otters by habitat on Mount Desert Island, Maine. J. Wildl. Manage. 54, 594–599.
Duncan, S.L. (1984) Leaving it to beaver. Environment 26, 41–45.
Ermala, A., Helminen, M. and Lahti, S. (1989) Some aspects of the occurrence, abundance and future of the Finnish beaver population. Suomen Riista 35, 108–118.
Finnigan, R.J. and Marshall, D.E. (1997). Managing beaver habitat for salmonids. In: Slaney, P.A. and Zaldokas, D. (eds.) Fish Habitat Rehabilitation Procedures. Watershed Restoration Technical Circular No. 9, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, pp. 15-1–15-11.
Forbes, G.J. and Theberge, J.B. (1996) Response by wolves to prey variation in central Ontario. Can. J. Zool. 74, 1511–1520.
Fox, M.G. and Keast, A. (1990) Effects of winterkill on population structure, body size, and prey consumption patterns of pumpkinseed in isolated beaver ponds. Can. J. Zool. 68, 2489–2498.
France, R.L. (1997) The importance of beaver lodges in structuring littoral communities in boreal headwater lakes. Can. J. Zool. 75, 1009–1013.
Francis, M.M., Naiman, R.J. and Melillo, J.M. (1985) Nitrogen fixation in subarctic streams influenced by beaver (Castor canadensis). Hydrobiologia 121, 193–202.
Fraser, J.M. (1982) An atypical brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis) spawning area. Envir. Biol. Fish. 7, 385–388.
Frisch, K. von. (1975) Animal Architecture. Hutchinson of London, 306 pp.
Fryxell, J.M. and Doucet, C.M. (1991) Provisioning time and central place foraging in beavers. Can. J. Zool. 69, 1308–1313.
Gard, R. (1961) Effects of beaver on trout in Sagehen Creek, California. J. Wildl. Manage. 25, 221–242.
Gard, R. and Flittner, G.A. (1974) Distribution and abundance of fishes in Sagehen Creek, California. J. Wildl. Manage. 38, 347–358.
Gard, R. and Seegrist, D.W. (1972) Abundance and harvest of trout in Sagehen Creek, California. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 3, 463–477.
Gibson, R.J. (1969) East Blue Lake fisheries investigation, 1967- 1968. Manitoba Department of Mines and Natural Resources, Fisheries Branch, Rept. No. 69-7, 85 pp.
Gibson, R.J. (1993) The Atlantic salmon in freshwater: spawning, rearing and production. Rev. Fish Biol. Fisheries 3, 39–73.
Gibson, R.J., Hammar, J. and Mitchell, G. (1999) The Star Lake hydroelectric project - an example of the failure of the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act. In: Ryan P.M. (ed.), Assessment and impacts of megaprojects. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Society of Environmental Biologists in collaboration with the Newfoundland and Labrador Environment Network, St. John's, Nfld. Canada, October 1- 3, 1998. Canadian Society of Environmental Biologists. Toronto. x + 233p., pp. 147–176.
Gibson, R.J., Hillier, K.G. and Whalen, R.R. (1996) Status of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the Highlands River, St. George's Bay (SFA 13), Newfoundland, 1995. DFO Atl. Fish. Res. Doc. 96/39, 35 pp.
Gill, D. (1972) The evolution of a discrete beaver habitat in the MacKenzie river Delta, Northwest Territories. Can. Field-Nat. 86, 233–239.
Grasse, J.E. (1951) Beaver ecology and management in the Rockies. J. For. 49, 3–6.
Grasse, J.E. (1979) Some trout-raising alternatives... irrigation ditches and beaver ponds. Salmonid 3, 12–15.
Grasse, J.E. and Putnam, E.F. (1955) Beaver Management and ecology in Wyoming. Wyo. Game and Fish Comm. Bull. No 6. Cheyenne, 75 pp.
Grover, A.M. and Baldassarre, G.A. (1995) Bird species richness within beaver ponds in south-central New York. Wetlands 15, 108–118.
Hägglund, Å. and Sjöberg, G. (1999) Effects of beaver dams on the fish fauna of forest streams. Forest Ecol. Manag. 115, 259–266.
Hakala, J.B. (1952) The life history and general ecology of the beaver (Castor canadensis Kuhl) in interior Alaska. M.Sc. thesis Univ. Alaska. Fairbanks. 181 pp.
Hale, J.G. (1966) Influence of beaver on some trout streams along the Minnesota north shore of Lake Superior. Minn. Bur. Fish. Invest. Rep. No. 244, 28 pp.
Hall, J.G. (1960) Willow and aspen in the ecology of beaver on Sagehen Creek, California. Ecology 41, 484–494.
Hammerson, G.A. (1994) Beaver (Castor canadensis): Ecosystem alterations, management, and monitoring. Nat. Areas. J. 14, 44–57.
Hanson, W.D. and Campbell, R.S. (1963) The effects of pool size and beaver activity on distribution and abundance of warm-water fishes in a North Missouri stream. Am. Midl. Nat. 69, 136–149.
Hartman, G. (1994a) Ecological studies of a reintroduced beaver (Castor fiber) population. Doctoral dissertation, The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, 111 pp.
Hartman, G. (1994b) Long-term population development of a reintroduced beaver (Castor fiber) population in Sweden. Conserv. Biol. 8, 713–717.
Hartman, G. (1997) Notes on age at dispersal of beaver (Castor fiber) in an expanding population. Can. J. Zool. 75, 959–962.
Hatler, D.F. (1981) Furbearers and traplines along the proposed Alaska Highway Gas Pipeline in northern British Columbia. Unpubl. Rep. for Westcoast Transmission Co., Ltd., Vancouver, 89 pp.
Heland, M. and Beall, E. (1997) Étude expérimentale de la compétition interspécifique entre juvéniles de saumon coho, Oncorhynchus kisutch, et de saumon atlantique, Salmo salar, en eau douce. Bull. Fr. Peche Piscic. 344/345, 241–252.
Hicks, J.T. (1977) Beaver and their control in Georgia. Tech. Bull. WL 2, Ga. Dept.Natur. Resources, Atlanta. 23 pp.
Hill, E.P. (1976) Control methods for nuisance beaver in the southeastern United States. Proc. Vert. Pest Conf. 7, 85–98.
Hill, E.P. (1982) Beaver, Castor canadensis. In: Chapman, J.A. and Feldhammer, G.A. (eds.), Wild Mammals of North America. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp. 256–281.
Hodgdon, K.W. and Hunt, J.H. (1953) Beaver management in Maine. Maine Dept. Inland Fisheries and Game. GameDiv. Bull 3, 102 pp.
Huey, W.S. and Wolfrum, W.H. (1956) Beaver-trout relations in New Mexico. Prog. Fish-Culturist 18, 70–74.
Ives, R.I. (1942) The beaver-meadow complex. J. Geomorphol. 5, 191–203.
Jakober, M.J., McMahon, T.E., Thurow, R.F. and Clancy, C.G. (1998) Role of stream ice on fall and winter movements and habitat use by bull trout and cutthroat trout inMontana headwater streams. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 127, 223–235.
Jenkins, S.H. (1979) Seasonal and year-to-year differences in food selection by beavers. Oecologia 44, 112–116.
Jenkins, S.H. (1980) A size-distance relation in food selection by beavers. Ecology 61, 740–746.
Jenkins, S.H. and Busher, P.E. (1979) Castor canadensis. Mammalian species. Am. Soc. Mammal. 120, 1–8.
Johnston, C.A. and Naiman, R.J. (1987) Boundary dynamics at the aquatic-terrestrial interface: The influence of beaver and geomorphology. Landscape Ecol. 1, 47–57.
Johnston, C.A. and Naiman, R.J. (1990) Browse selection by beaver: effects on riparian forest compostion. Can. J. For. Res. 20, 1036–1043.
Keast, A. and Fox, M.G. (1990) Fish community structure, spatial distribution and feeding ecology in a beaver pond. Env. Biol. Fish. 27, 201–214.
Keiper, R.R. (1966) The distribution and faunal succession of the macroscopic bottom fauna in three different aged beaver ponds. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of Massachusetts. 96 pp.
Keith, R.M., Bjorrn, T.C., Meehan, W.R., Hetrick, N.J. and Brusven, M.A. (1998) Response of juvenile salmonids to riparian and instream cover modifications in small streams flowing through second-growth forests of southeast Alaska. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 127, 889–907.
Klotz, R.L. (1998) Influence of beaver ponds on the phosphorus concentration of stream water. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55, 1228–1235.
Knudsen, G.J. (1962) Relationship of beaver to forests, trout and wildlife in Wisconsin. Wisconsin Conservation Department. Technical bulletin No. 25, Madison, 50 pp.
Komadina-Douthwright, S.M. (1994) Effects of beaver (Castor canadensis) on stream water quality under conditions of prolonged snow and ice cover (winter 1991-1992). Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1986, 34 pp.
Kondolf, G.M., Cada, G.F., Sale, M.J. and Felando, T. (1991) Distribution and stability of potential salmonid spawning gravels in steep boulder-bed streams of the Eastern Sierra Nevada. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 120, 177–186.
Lahti, S. and Helminen, M. (1974) The beaver Castor fiber (L.) and Castor canadensis (Kuhl) in Finland. Acta Theriol. 19, 177–189.
Lavrov, L.S. and Orlov, V.N. (1973) Karyotypes and taxonomy of modern beavers (Castor, Castoridae, Mammalie). Zool Zhur. 52, 734–742.
Lawrence, W.H., Fay, L.D. and Graham, S.A. (1956) A report on the beaver die-off in Michigan. J. Wildl. Manage. 20, 184–187.
Leidholt-Bruner, K., Hibbs, D.E. and McComb, W.C. (1992) Beaver dam locations and their effects on distribution and abundance of coho salmon fry in two coastal Oregon streams. NW. Sci. 66, 218–223.
Macdonald, D.W., Tattersall, F.H., Brown, E.D. and Balharry, D. (1995) Reintroducing the European beaver to Britain: nostalgic meddling or restoring biodiversity. Mammal Rev. 25, 161–200.
Maret, T.J., Parker, M. and Fannin, T.E. (1987) The effect of beaver ponds on the nonpoint source water quality of a stream in southwestern Wyoming. Wat. Res. 21, 263–268.
McDowell, D.M. and Naiman, R.J. (1986) Structure and function of a benthic invertebrate stream community as influenced by beaver. (Castor canadensis). Oecologia 68, 481–489.
McGinley, M.A. and Whitham, T.G. (1985) Central place foraging by beavers (Castor canadensis): a test of foraging predictions and the impact of selective feeding on the growth form of cottonwoods (Populus fermontii). Oecologia 66, 558–562.
McRae, G. and Edwards, C.J. (1994) Thermal characteristics of Wisconsin headwater streams occupied by beaver: Implications for brook trout habitat. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 123, 641–656.
Medwecka-Korna's, A. and Hawro, R. (1993) Vegetation on beaver dams in the Ojcó w National Park (Southern Poland). Phytocoenologia 23, 611–618.
Miller, J.E. and Yarrow, G.K. (1994) Beavers - damage prevention and control methods. In: Hygnstrom, S.E., Timm, R.M. and Larson, G.E. (eds.), Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage. Univ. Nebraska, U.S. Dept. Agriculture, and Great Plains Agric. Comm., U.S., pp. B1–B11.
Müller-Schwarze, D. (1992) Beaver waterworks. Natural History 5/92, 52–53.
Munther, G.L. (1983) Integration of beaver into forest management. Proceedings of the 18th Annual Meeting of the American fisheries Society, Laramie, Wyoming, pp. 73–80.
Murphy, M.L., Heifetz, J., Thedinga, J.F., Johnson, S.W. and Koski, K.V. (1989) Habitat utilisation by juvenile Pacific salmon (Onchorynchus) in the glacial Taku River, southeast Alaska. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 46, 1677–1685.
Myrberget, S. (1967) The beaver in Norway. Acta Theriol. 12, 17–26.
Naiman, R.J. and Melillo, J.M. (1984) Nitrogen budget of a subartic stream altered by beaver (Castor canadensis). Oecologia 62, 150–155.
Naiman, R.J., Johnston, C.A. and Kelley, J.C. (1988) Alteration of North American streams by beaver. Bio. Science 38, 753–762.
Naiman, R.J., McDowell, D.M., and Farr, B.S. (1984) The influence of beaver (Castor canadensis) on the production dynamics of aquatic insects. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 22, 1801–1810.
Naiman, R.J., Melillo, J.M. and Hobbie, J.E. (1986) Ecosystem alteration of boreal forest streams by beaver (Castor canadensis). Ecology 67, 1254–1269.
Naiman, R.J., Pinay, G., Johnston, C.A. and Pastor, J. (1994) Beaver influences on the long-term biogeochemical characteristics of boreal forest drainage networks. Ecology 75, 905–921.
Neff, D.J. (1957) Ecological effects of beaver habitat abandonment in the Colorado Rockies. J. Wildl. Manage. 21, 80–84.
Newton, R.M., Burns, D.A., Blette, V.L. and Driscoll, C.T. (1996) Effect of whole catchment liming on the episodic acidification of two Adirondack streams. Biochem. 32, 299–322.
Nickelson, T.E., Rodgers, J.D., Johnson, S.L. and Solazzi, M.F. (1992a) Seasonal changes in habitat use by juvenile coho salmon (iOncorhynchus kisutch) in Oregon coastal streams. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49, 783–789.
Nickelson, T.E., Solazzi, M.F., Johnson, S.L. and Rodgers, J.D. (1992b) An approach to determining stream carrying capacity and limiting habitat for coho salmon (Oncoryhnchus Kisutch). In: Berg, L. and Delaney, P.W. (eds.), Proceedings of the Coho Workshop. Nanaimo, B.C. May 26- 28, pp. 251–260.
Noel, D.S., Martin, C.W. and Federer, C.A. (1986) Effects of forest clearcutting in New England on stream macrophytes and periphyton. Envir. Manage. 10, 661–670.
Nolet, B.A. (1996) Management of the beaver (Castor fiber): towards restoration of its former distribution and ecological function in Europe? Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 25 October 1996, 29 pp.
Nolet, B.A. and Rosell, F. (1994) Territoriality and time budgets in beavers during sequential settlement. Can. J. Zool. 72, 1227–1237.
Nolet, B.A. and Rosell, F. (1998) Come back of the beaver Castor fiber: an overview of old and new conservation problems. Biol. Conserv. 83, 165–173.
Nolet, B.A., Hoekstra, A. and Ottenheim, M.M. (1994) Selective foraging on woody species by the beaver Castor fiber and its impact on a riparian willow forest. Biol. Conserv. 70, 117–128.
Northcott, T.H. (1971) Feeding habits of beaver in Newfoundland. Oikos 22, 407–410.
Novak, M. (1987) Beaver. In: Novak, M., Baker, J.A., Obbard, M.E. and Malloch, B. (eds.), Wild Furbearer Management and Conservation in North America. Ontario Trappers Association, North Bay, Canada, pp. 283–312.
Nummi, P. (1989) Simulated effects of the beaver on vegetation, invertebrates and ducks. Ann. Zool. Fennici. 26, 43–52.
Nummi, P. (1992) The importance of beaver ponds to waterfowl broods: an experiment and natural tests. Ann. Zool. Fennici. 29, 47–55.
O'Grady, M.F. (1993) Initial observations on the effects of varying levels of deciduous bankside vegetation on salmonid stocks in Irish waters. Aquat. Fish. Manage. 24, 563–573.
Ozolin, J. and Rantin, M. (1992) Some preconditions for the present development of otter Lutra lutra (L), number and distribution in Latvia. Semiaquatische Säugetiere. Wiss., Beitr. Univ. Hale, pp. 365–384.
Packard, F.M. (1960) Beaver killed by coyotes. J. Mammal. 21, 339–360.
Parker, M. (1986) Beaver, water quality and riparian systems. Proceedings: Wyoming water and streamside zone conference. Wyoming Water Research Centre, University of Wyoming, Laramie, pp. 88–94.
Parker, M., Wood, F.J., Smith, B.H. and Elder, R.G. (1985) Erosional downcutting in lower order riparian ecosystems: have historical changes been caused by removal of beaver? In: Johnson et al. (eds.), Tech. Records. Riparian ecosystems and their management: reconciling conflicting uses. 1st N. American Riparian Conf. 1985. April 16- 18, Tuscon AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-120, Fort Collins, Co: US. Dept. Agr. For. Serv. Rocky Mountain Forest, pp. 35–38.
Patterson, D. (1951) Beaver-trout relationships. Wisc. Conserv. Dep. Invest. Rep. No. 822, 34 pp.
Peterson, S.R. and Low, J.B. (1977) Waterfowl use of Unita Mountain wetlands in Utah. J. Wildl. Manage. 41, 112–117.
Pinkowski, B. (1983) Foraging behaviour of beavers (Castor canadensis) in North Dakota. J. Mamm. 64, 312–314.
Pullen, T.M. (1971) Some effects of beaver (Castor canadensis) and beaver pond management on the ecology and utilization of fish populations along warm - water streams in Georgia and South Carolina. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Georgia. 81 pp.
Rabe, F.W. (1962) The effect of spawning areas on brook trout populations in some Colorado beaver ponds. Proc. Utah. Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. 39, 195–196.
Rabe, F.W. (1970) Brook trout populations in Colorado beaver ponds. Hydrobiologia. 35, 431–448.
Rasmussen, D.I. (1941) Beaver-trout relationship in the Rocky Mountain region. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 5, 256–263.
Rausch, R.A. and Pearson, A.M. (1972) Notes on the wolverine in Alaska and the Yukon. J. Wildl. Manage. 36, 249.
Reese, K.P. and Hair, J.D. (1976) Avian species diversity in relation to beaver pond habitats in the Piedmont region of South Carolina. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeast Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies 30, 437–447.
Reid, K.A. (1952) Effects of beaver on trout waters. Md. Cons. 29, 21–23.
Reid, D.G., Herero, S.M. and Code, T.E. (1988) River otters as agents of water loss from beaver ponds. J. Mammal. 69, 100–107.
Richard, P.B. (1955) Biè vres constructeurs de barrages. Mammalia 19, 293–301.
Richard, P.B. (1967) Le déterminisme de la construction des barrages chez le Castor du Rhô ne. Terre et la Vie 21, 339–472.
Richard, P.B. (1983) Mechanisms and adaptation in the constructive behaviour of the beaver (C.fiber L.). Acta Zool.Fennica 174, 105–108.
Roblee, K.J. (1984) Use of corrugated plastic drainage tubing for controlling water levels at nuisance beaver sites. N. Y. Fish Game J. 31, 63–80.
Rohde, F.C. and Arndt, R.G. (1991) Distribution and status of the sandhills chub, Semotilus lumbee, and the pinewoods darter, Etheostoma mariae. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 107, 61–70.
Rosell, F. and Parker, H. (1995) Forvaltning av bever: dagens tilstand og fremtidig behav. Hogskolen: Telemark, Avdeling for okonomi - , miljo-og idrettsfag, Bø , 137 pp.
Rosell, F., Parker, H. and Kile, N.B. (1996) Causes of mortality in beaver (Castor fiber and canadensis). Fauna 34–46.
Rupp, R.S. (1955) Beaver-trout relationship in the headwaters of Sunkhaze stream, Maine. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 84, 75–85.
Rutherford, W.H. (1955) Wildlife and environmental relationships of beavers in Colorado forests. J. For. 53, 803–806.
Saunders, J.K. (1963) Food habits of the lynx in Newfoundland. J. Wildl. Manage. 27, 384–390.
Schlosser, I.J. (1995) Dispersal, boundary processes and trophic level interactions in streams adjacent to beaver ponds. Ecology 76, 908–925.
Schlosser, I.J. (1998) Fish recruitment, dispersal, and trophic interactions in a heterogeneous lotic environment. Oecologia 113, 260–268.
Schlosser, I.J., Doeringsfeld, M.R., Elder, J.F. and Arzayus, L.F. (1998) Niche relationships of clonal and sexual fish in a heterogeneous landscape. Ecology 79, 953–968.
Schulte, R. and Schneider, E. (1989) Dambuilding of European beavers, Castor fiber L. and its importance for the colonisation of fast running streams in the Eifel Mountains (FGR). Abstracts of the proceedings of the Fifth international theriological congress Rome 22- 29 August. 313 pp.
Scruton, D.A., Anderson, T.C. and King, L.W. (1998) Pamehac Brook: a case study of the restoration of a Newfoundland, Canada, river impacted by flow diversion for pulpwood transportation. Aquatic Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 8, 145–157.
Sedell, J.R., Swanson, F.J. and Gregory, S.V. (1985) Evaluating fish response to woody debris. In: Hassler J.J. (ed.), Pacific Northwest stream habitat management workshop; 1984. October 10- 12. Areata, CA: Humboldt Stoke University, pp. 222–245.
Semyonoff, B.T. (1951) The river beaver in Archangel Province. Trans. Russ. Game Rep. 1, 5–45. Canadian Wildl. Serv. 1957, Ottowa.
Semyonoff, B.T. (1953) Beaver biology in winter in Archangel Province. Trans. Russ. Game Rep. (1957). 1, 71–92.
Seton, E.T. (1929) Lives of Game Animals. Doubleday, Doran & Co., Garden City N.Y., 506 pp.
Shelton, P.C. (1979) Population studies of beavers in Isle Royale National Park. Michigan Trans. Proc. Ser. No. 5, Vol. 1, Sci. Res. Nat. Park. Serv. pp. 335–356.
Shelton, P.C. and Peterson, R.O. (1983) Beaver, wolf and moose interactions in Isle Royale National Park, USA. Acta Zool. Fennica. 174, 265–266.
Shetter, D.S. and Whalls, M.J. (1955) Effect of impoundment on water temperatures of Fuller Creek, Montmorency County, Michigan. J. Wildl. Manage. 19, 47–54.
Shields, F.D., Knight, S.S. and Cooper, C.M. (1998) Additions of spurs to stone toe protection for warmwater fish habitat rehabilitation. J. Am. Water Resources Assocn. 34, 1427–1436.
Sidorovich, V.E., Jedrzejewska, B. and Jedrzejewski, W. (1996) Winter distribution and abundance of mustelids and beavers in the river valleys of Bialowieza Primeval Forest. Acta Theriol. 41, 155–170.
Simonsen, T.A. (1973) Feeding ecology of the beaver (Castor fiber L.) Medd. Statens. Viltunders. 2, 20–61.
Slough, B.G. (1978) Beaver food cache structure and utilisation. J. Wildl. Manage. 42, 644–646.
Smith, M.E., Driscoll, C.T., Wyskowski, B.J., Brooks, C.M. and Consentini, C.C. (1991) Modification of stream ecosystem structure and function by beaver (Castor canadensis) in the Adirondack Mountains, New York. Can. J. Zool. 69, 55–61.
Snodgrass, J.W. and Meffe, G.K. (1998) Influence of beavers on stream fish assemblages: effects of pond age and watershed position. Ecology 79, 928–942.
Snodgrass, J.W. and Meffe, G.K. (1999) Habitat use and temporal dynamics of blackwater stream fishes in and adjacent to beaver ponds. Copeia 3, 628–639.
Songster-Alpin, M.S. and Klotz, R.L. (1995) A comparison of electron transport system activity in stream and beaver pond sediments. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 52, 1318–1326.
Sprules, W.M. (1941) The effect of a beaver dam on the insect fauna of a trout stream. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 70, 236–248.
Stack, W.R. and Beschta, R.L. (1989) Factors influencing pool morphology in Oregon coastal streams. Headwaters Hydrology, American Water Resources Association, Hydrol. Symp., Missoula, MT, June 23- 27, pp. 401–411.
Stocker, G. (1985) The beaver (Castor fiber L.) in Switzerland - Biological and ecological problems of re-establishment. Swiss Federal Institute of Forestry Research Reports. 242, 1–149.
Svendsen, G.E. (1980) Seasonal change in feeding patterns of beaver in southeastern Ohio. J. Wildl. Manage. 44, 285–290.
Swanston, D.N. (1991) Natural processes. In: Meehan, W.R. (ed.), Influences of Forest and Rangeland Management on Salmonid Fishes and Their Habitats. American Fisheries Society Special Publication 19. Bethesda, Maryland, USA., pp. 139–179.
Tumlison, R., Karnes, M. and King, A.W. (1982) The river otter in Arkansas ll. Indications of a beaver-facilitated commensal relationship. Arkansas Acad. Sci. Proc. 36, 73–75.
Tyurnin, B.N. (1984) Factors determining numbers of river beaver (Castor fiber) in the European North. Soviet Journal of Ecology 14, 337–344.
Vannote, R.L., Minshall, G.W., Cummins, K.W., Sedell, J.R. and Cushing, C.E. (1980) The river continuum concept. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37, 130–137.
Vernon, G. (1992) Biogeographical history of the European beaver, Castor fiber (Rodentia, Mammalia.) Mammalia 56, 87–108.
Vogt, B. (1981) What ails the river otter? National Wildlife 22, 8–15.
Welch, P.S. (1935) Limnology. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, 471 pp.
White, D.S. (1990) Biological relationships to convective flow patterns within stream beds. Hydrobiologia 196, 149–158.
Wilsson, L. (1971) Observations and experiments on the ethology of the European beaver (Castor fiber L.) Viltrevy 8, 113–266.
Wing, L.W. (1951) Practice of wildlife conservation. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 412 pp.
Winkle, P.L., Hubert, W.A. and Rahel, F.J. (1990) Relations between brook trout standing stocks and habitat features in beaver ponds in southeastern Wyoming. N. Amer. J. Fish. Manage. 10, 72–79.
Woo, M.K. and Waddington, J.M. (1990) Effects of beaver dams on subarctic wetland hydrology. Arctic 43, 223–230.
Woodard, E.L. (1994) Behaviour, activity patterns and foraging strategies of beaver (Castor canadensis) on Sagehen Creek, California. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of California.
Wright, S. (1944). Increasing the production of food for fish. Trans. Ninth N. Am. Wildlife Conf., pp. 190–196.
Yeager, L.E. and Hill, R.R. (1954) Beaver management problems in western public lands. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. 19, 462–479.
Young, M.K. (1995) Telemetry - determined diurnal positions of brown trout (Salmo trutta) in two south-central Wyoming streams. Am. Midl. Nat. 133, 264–273.
Zharkov, I.V. and Rodikov, V.P. (1975) Interrelationships of the beaver and otter in some biocenoses of the Pripyat Forest. In: Transactions of the Voronezh StatePreserve 21, 97–104.
Zharkov, I.V. and Sokolov, V.E. (1967) The European beaver (Castor fiber Linnaeus 1758) in the Soviet Union. Acta Theriol. 12, 27–46.
Zurowski, W. (1989) Dam building activity of beavers on the mountainous streams. Abstracts: Fifth Int. Theriol. Congr. Rome 1, 316–317.
Zurowski, W. (1992) Building activity of beavers. Acta Theriol. 37, 403–411.
Zurowski, W. and Kasperczyk, B. (1986) Characteristics of a European beaver population in the Suwalki Lakeland. ActaTheriol. 31, 311–325.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Collen, P., Gibson, R. The general ecology of beavers (Castor spp.), as related to their influence on stream ecosystems and riparian habitats, and the subsequent effects on fish – a review. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 10, 439–461 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012262217012
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012262217012