Abstract
In any ecological risk assessment, afull complement of the relevant members of theecosystems being studied should be considered. Reptiles in general, and snakes in particular, areimportant although often neglected components ofterrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and should beincluded in any study on environmental contamination. By neglecting reptiles, the risks posed by aparticular contaminant cannot be fully assessed. Since all snakes are secondary, tertiary, and toppredators, they are susceptible to the bioaccumulationof environmental contaminants. Their unique lifehistories make their roles in food webs diverse andimportant, and they are crucial to the properfunctioning of many ecological processes. We reviewand summarize organic and inorganic contaminant andradionuclide/radiation residue and lethal andsublethal effects data for snakes to stress theimportance of snakes and encourage their inclusion inecological risk assessments, to demonstrate thepaucity of available contaminant data on snakes andreveal the main information gaps, to encourage furtherecotoxicological studies on snakes, and to facilitatethe use of existing snake contaminant data inecological risk assessments. This review is the mostcomprehensive review currently available on theeffects on and accumulation of environmentalcontaminants in snakes.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Beck, A. B.: 1956, ‘The copper content of the liver and blood of some vertebrates’, Aust. J. Zool. 4, 1–18.
Bennett Jr., R. S., Klaas, E. E., Coats, J. R., Mayse, M. A. and Kolbe, E. J.: 1983, ‘Fenvalerate residues in nontarget organisms from treated cotton fields’, Bull. Environ. Contam Toxicol. 31, 61–65.
Best, S. M.: 1973, ‘Some organochlorine pesticide residues in wildlife of the Northern Territory, Australia, 1970–71’, Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 26, 1161–1170.
Bishop, C. A. and Gendron, A. D.: 1998, ‘Reptiles and amphibians: shy and sensitive vertebrates of the Great Lakes Basin and St. Lawrence River’, Environ. Monit. Assess. 53, 225–244.
Bracher, G. A. and Bider, J. R.: 1982, ‘Changes in terrestrial animal activity of a forest community after an application of aminocarb (Matacil®)’, Can. J. Zool. 60, 1981–1997.
Brisbin Jr., I. L., Staton, M. A., Pinder III, J. E. and Geiger, R. A.: 1974, ‘Radiocesium concentrations of snakes from contaminated and non-contaminated habitats of the AEC Savannah River Plant’, Copeia 1974, 501–506.
Brooks, J. E., Savarie, P. J. and Bruggers, R. L.: 1998a, ‘The toxicity of commercial insecticide aerosol formulations to brown tree snakes’, Snake 28, 23–27.
Brooks, J. E., Savarie, P. J. and Johnson, J. J.: 1998b, ‘The oral and dermal toxicity of selected chemicals to brown tree snakes’, Wildlife Res. 25, 427–435.
Brooks, J. E., Savarie, P. J., Johnson, J. J. and Bruggers, R. L.: 1998c, ‘Toxicity of pyrethrin/ pyrethroid fogger products to brown tree snakes, Boiga irregularis, in cargo containers’, Snake 28, 33–36.
Burger, J.: 1992, ‘Trace element levels in pine snake hatchlings: Tissue and temporal differences’, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 22, 209–213.
Bury, R. B.: 1972, ‘The effects of diesel fuel on a stream fauna’, Calif. Fish and Game 58, 291–295.
Calle, P. P., Rivas, J., Muñoz, M., Thorbjarnarson, J., Dierenfeld, E. S., Holmstron, W., Braselton, W. E. and Karesh, W. B.: 1994, ‘Health assessment of free-ranging anacondas (Eunectes murinus) in Venezuela’, J. Zoo. Wildlife Med. 25, 53–62.
Campbell, K. R. and Campbell, T. S.: 2000, ‘Lizard contaminant data for ecological risk assessment’, Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 165, 39–116.
Conant, R. and Collins, J. T.: 1991, A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians, Eastern and Central North America, Houghton Miflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.
Cosgrove, G. E.: 1965, ‘The radiosensitivity of snakes and box turtles’, Radiation Research 25, 706–712.
Crain, D. A. and Guillette Jr., L. J.: 1997, ‘Endocrine-disrupting contaminants and reproduction in vertebrate wildlife’, Reviews in Toxicology 1, 47–70.
Dowd, P. F., Mayfield, G. U., Coulon, D. P., Graves, J. B. and Newsom, J. D.: 1985, ‘Organochlorine residues in animals from three Louisiana watersheds in 1978 and 1979’, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 34, 832–841.
Flickinger, E. L. and King, K. A.: 1972, ‘Some effects of aldrin-treated rice on Gulf Coast wildlife’, J. Wild. Manage. 36, 706–727.
Fontenot, L.W., Noblet, G. P. and Platt, S. G.: 1996, ‘A survey of herpetofauna inhabiting polychlorinated biphenyl contaminated and reference watersheds in Pickens County, South Carolina’, J. Elisha Mitchell Scien. Soc. 112, 20–30.
Ford, W.M. and Hill, E. P.: 1991, ‘Organochlorine pesticides in soil sediments and aquatic animals in the Upper Steele Bayou watershed of Mississippi’, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 20, 161–167.
Frank, N. and Ramus, E.: 1995, A Complete Guide to Scientific and Common Names of Reptiles and Amphibians of the World, NG Publishing, Inc., Pottsville, Pennsylvania.
Geiger, R. A. and Winsor, T. F.: 1977, ‘239Pu contamination in snakes inhabiting the Rocky Flats plant site’, Health Physics 33, 145–148.
Hall, R. J.: 1980, Effects of Environmental Contaminants on Reptiles: A Review, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report-Wildlife No. 228, Washington, D.C.
Hayashi, Y., Kihara, H. and Tanaka, H.: 1978, ‘Development of directions for use of chlordane’, Snake 10, 56–59, 99.
Heinz, G. H., Haseltine, S. D., Hall, R. J. and Krynitsky, A. J.: 1980, ‘Organochlorine and mercury residues in snakes from Pilot and Spider Islands, Lake Michigan – 1978’, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 25, 738–743.
Hopkins, W. A., Rowe, C. L. and Congdon, J. D.: 1999, ‘Elevated trace element concentrations and standard metabolic rate in banded water snakes (Nerodia fasciata) exposed to coal combustion wastes’, Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 18, 1258–1263.
Johnson, J. J., Furcolow, C. A., Volz, S. A., Mauldin, R. E., Primus, T. M., Savarie, P. J. and Brooks, J. E.: 1999, ‘Quantitation of pyrethrum residues in brown tree snakes’, J. Chrom. Sci. 37, 5–10.
Kaur, S.: 1988, ‘Lead in the scales and cobras and wall snakes from rural and urban areas of Punjab, India’, Sci. Total. Environ. 77, 289–290.
Kihara, H. and Yamashita, H.: 1979, ‘Development of a new type trap with adhesive seat containing pesticides’, Snake 11, 6–10, 119.
Korfmacher, W. A., Rowland, K. R., Michum, R. K., Daly, J. J., McDaniel, R. C. and Plummer, M. V.: 1984, ‘Analysis of snake tissue and snake eggs for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin via fused silica GC combined with atmospheric pressure ionization MS’, Chemosphere 13, 1229–1233.
Lambert, M. R. K.: 1997, ‘Effects of pesticides on amphibians and reptiles in sub-saharan Africa’, Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 150, 31–73.
Lance, V. A., Cort, T., Masuoka, J., Lawson, R. and Saltman, P.: 1995, ‘Unusually high zinc concentrations in snake plasma, with observations on plasma zinc concentrations in snakes, turtles and alligators’, J. Zool., London 235, 577–585.
Littrell, E. E.: 1982, ‘A study on the effects of Bolero 10G® on the mountain garter snake, Thamnophis elegans elegans’, Calif. Fish and Game 69, 186–187.
McCoid, M. J., Campbell III, E. W. and Alokoa, B. C.: 1993, ‘Efficacy of a chemical repellant for the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis)’ Snake 25, 115–119.
Mason, R. T.: 1992, ‘Reptilian pheromones’, in Gans, C. and Crews, D. (eds.), Biology of the Reptilia: Behavioral Physiology, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 114–228.
Niethammer, K. R., Atkinson, R. D., Baskett, T. S. and Samson, F. B.: 1985, ‘Metals in riparian wildlife of the lead mining district of southeastern Missouri’, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 14, 213–223.
Niethammer, K. R., White, D. H., Baskett, T. S. and Sayre, M. W.: 1984, ‘Presence and biomagni-fication of organochlorine chemical residues in oxbow lakes of northeastern Louisiana’, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 13, 63–74.
Ohlendorf, H. M., Hothem, R. L. and Aldrich, T.W.: 1988, ‘Bioaccumulation of selenium by snakes and frogs in the San Joaquin Valley, California’, Copeia 1988, 704–710.
Pough, F. H., Andrews, R. M., Cadle, J. E., Crump, M. L., Savitzky, A. H. and Wells, K. D.: 1998, Herpetology, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Primus, T. M., Tawara, J. N., Goodall, M. J., Brooks, J. E., Savarie, P. J. and Johnston, J. J.: 1998, ‘Determination of propoxur residues in whole body brown tree snakes’, J. Agric. Food Chem. 46, 2647–2650.
Rodda, G. H. and Fritts, T. H.: 1992, ‘The impacts of the introduction of the brown tree snake, Boiga irregularis, on Guam's lizards’, J. Herpetol. 26, 166–174.
Sabourin, T. D., Stickle, W. B., Michot, T. C., Villars, C. E., Garton, D. W. and Mushinsky, H. R.: 1984, ‘Organochlorine residue levels in Mississippi River water snakes in southern Louisiana’, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 32, 460–468.
Sadiq, M. and Zaidi, T. H.: 1984, ‘Vanadium and nickel content of Nowruz spill tar flakes on the Saudi Arabian coastline and their probable environmental impact’, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 32, 635–639.
Savarie, P. J. and Bruggers, R. L.: 1999, ‘Candidate Repellants, Oral and Dermal Toxicants, and Fumigants for Brown Treesnake Control’, in G. H. Godda, Y. Sawai, D. Chiszar and H. Tanaka (eds.), Problem Snake Management: The Habu and the Brown Treesnake, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, pp. 417–422.
Savarie, P. J., Brooks, J. E. and Wood, W. S.: 1995, ‘Fumigation of brown tree snakes with methyl bromide, sulfuryl fluoride, and phosphine on Guam’ DWRC Unpublished Progress Report, Denver Wildlife Research Center, Denver, Colorado.
Savidge, J. A.: 1987, ‘Extinction of an island forest avifauna by an introduced snake’, Ecology 68, 660–668.
Schmähl, D. and Scherf, H. R.: 1983, ‘Carcinogenic activity of n-nitrosodiethylamine in snakes’, Naturwissenschaften 70, 94–95.
Staton, M. A., Brisbin Jr., I. L. and Geiger, R. A.: 1974, ‘Some aspects of radiocesium retention in naturally contaminated captive snakes’, Herpetologica 30, 204–211.
Stebbins, R. C.: 1985, A Field Guide to Western Amphibians and Reptiles, Houghton Miflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.
Toriba, M., Senbo, S. and Kosuge, Y.: 1999, ‘New Dermal Toxicants and Methods of Application for Venomous Snakes’, in Rodda, G. H., Sawai, Y., Chiszar, D. and Tanaka, H. (eds.), Problem Snake Management: The Habu and the Brown Treesnake, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, pp. 411–416.
Van der Valk, H. C. H. G.: 1997, ‘Community structure and dynamics in desert ecosystems: potential implications for insecticide risk assessment’ Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 32, 11–21.
Wheeler, W. B., Jouvenaz, D. P., Wojcik, D. P., Banks, W. A., Van Middelem, C. H., Lofgren, C. S., Nesbitt, S., Williams, L. and Brown, R.: 1977, ‘Mirex residues in nontarget organisms after application of 10–5 bait for fire ant control, Northeast Florida – 1972–1974’, Pestic. Monit. J. 11, 146–156.
Winger, P. V., Sieckman, C., May, T. W. and Johnson, W. W.: 1984, ‘Residues of organochlorine insecticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and heavy metals in biota from Apalachicola River, Florida, 1978’, J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 67, 325–333.
Wojcik, D. P., Banks, W. A., Wheeler, W. B., Jouvenaz, D. P., Van Middelem, C. H. and Lofgren, C. S.: 1975, ‘Mirex residues in nontarget organisms after application of experimental baits for fire ant control, Southwest Georgia – 1971–1972’, Pestic. Monit. J. 9, 124–133.
Wójcik, J., Czekaj, H., Kozaczynski, W. and Niewiadowska, A.: 1995, ‘Polychlorinated biphenyls: a possible agent of neurologic disorders observed in young snakes’, Bull. Vet. Inst. Pulawy. 39, 53–57.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Campbell, K.R., Campbell, T.S. The Accumulation and Effects of Environmental Contaminants on Snakes: A Review. Environ Monit Assess 70, 253–301 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010731409732
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010731409732