Abstract
We examine the extent to which deficits in academic achievement in low birthweight (LBW) children at age 11 are explained by deficits in cognitive abilities at school entry. Data come from a longitudinal study of a stratified sample of LBW and normal birthweight (NBW) children from an innercity and middle class suburbs in the Detroit area. Woodcock–Johnson Psychoeducational Battery—Revised was used to measure reading and math at age 11. WISC-R and specific neuropsychologic tests were administered at age 6. On reading, the LBW–NBW difference was −3.6 points (SE = 1.2). The difference was explained almost entirely by IQ at age 6. On math, the LBW–NBW difference was −6.1 points (SE = 1.1). The difference on math was trivial and not significant, when IQ and neuropsychological tests at age 6 were controlled. Level of LBW was unrelated to reading, but it had a gradient relationship with math, with birthweight ≤1,500 g associated with a greater deficit than heavier LBW. The results imply that most of the LBW–NBW gap in academic achievement at age 11 could be eliminated by eliminating differences in cognitive abilities at age 6. Interventions to improve academic performance of LBW children should focus on the preschool years.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Beery, K. E. (1989). Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration: Administration, scoring, teaching manual. Cleveland, OH: Modern Curriculum Press.
Breslau, N. (1995). Psychiatric sequelae of low birthweight. Epidemiologic Reviews, 7, 96-106.
Breslau, N., Brown, G. G., Del Dotto, J. E., Kumar, S., Ezhutachan, S., Andreski, P., & Hufnagle, K. (1996). Psychiatric sequelae of low birthweight at six years of age. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 385-400.
Breslau, N., Chilcoat, H. D., Del Dotto, J., Andreski, P., & Brown, G. G. (1996). Low birthweight and neurocognitive status at six years of age. Biological Psychiatry, 40, 389-397.
Breslau, N., Del Dotto, J. E., Brown, G. G., Kumar, S., Ezhutachan, S., & Hufnagle, K. G. (1994). A gradient relationship between low birthweight and IQ at age 6 years. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 148, 377-383.
Campbell, F. A., & Ramey, C. T. (1994). Effects of early intervention on intellectual and academic achievement: A follow-up study of children from low-income families. Child Development, 65, 684-698.
Cohen, S. E. (1995). Biosocial factors in early infancy as predictors of competence in adolescents who were born prematurely. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 16, 36-41.
Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Shankweiler, D. P., Katz, L., Liberman, I. Y., Stuebing, K. K., Francis, D. J., Fowler, A. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1994). Cognitive profiles of reading disability: Comparisons of discrepancy and low achievement definitions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 6-23.
Hack, M., Breslau, N., Aram, D., Weissman, B., & Klein, N. K. (1992). The effect of very low birthweight and social risk on neurocognitive abilities at school age. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 13, 412-440.
Hack, M., Klein, N. K., & Taylor, H. G. (1995). Long-term developmental outcomes of low birth weight infants. The Future of Children, 5, 176-196.
Hall, A., McLeod, A., Counsell, C., Thomson, L., & Mutch, L. (1995). School attainment, cognitive ability and motor function in a total Scottish very-low-birthweight population at eight years: A controlled study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 37, 1037-1050.
Johnson, E. O., & Breslau, N. (2000). Increased risk of learning disabilities in low birthweight boys at age 11 years. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 490-500.
Klebanov, P. K., Brooks-Gunn, J., & McCormick, M. C. (1994). School achievement and failure in very low birthweight children. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 15, 248-256.
Klein, N. K., Hack, M., Breslau, N. (1989). Children who were very low birth weight: Development and academic achievement at nine years of age. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 10, 32-37.
Levy-Shiff, R., Einat, G., Mogilner, M. B., Lerman, M., & Krikler, R. (1994). Biological and environmental correlates of developmental outcome of prematurely born infants in early adolescence. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 19, 63-78.
Lloyd, B. W., Wheldall, K., & Perks, D. (1988). Controlled study of intelligence and school performance of very low birthweight children from a defined geographical area. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 30, 36-42.
Marlow, N., Roberts, L., & Cooke, R. W. I. (1989). Motor skills in extremely low birthweight children at the age of 6 years. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 64, 839-847.
Marlow, N., Roberts, L., & Cooke, R. (1993). Outcome at 8 years for children with birth weights of 1250 g or less. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 68, 286-290.
McCarton, C. M., Brooks-Gunn, J., Wallace, I. F., Bauer, C. R., Bennett, F. C., Bernbaum, J. C., Broyles, S., Casey, P. H., McCormick, M. C., Scott, D. T., Tyson, J., Tonascia, J., & Meinert, C. L. (1997). Results at age 8 years of early intervention for low birthweight premature infants: The Infant Health and Development Program. JAMA, 277, 126-132.
McCormick, M. C., Brooks-Gunn, J., Workman-Daniels, K., Turner, J., & Peckham, G. J. (1992). The health and developmental status of very-low-birthweight children at school age. JAMA, 267, 2204-2208.
Ramey, C. T., Bryant, D. M., Wasik, B. H., Sparling, J. J., Fendt, K. H., & LaVange, L. M. (1992). Infant Health and Development Program for low birthweight, premature infants: Program elements, family participation, and child intelligence. JAMA, 89, 454-465.
Rickards, A. L., Kitchen, W. H., Doyle, L. W., Ford, G. W., Kelly, E. A., & Callanan, C. (1993). Cognition, school performance and behavior in very low birthweight and normal birthweight children at 8 years of age: A longitudinal study. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 14, 363-368.
Rosner, J., & Simon, D. P. (1970). Auditory Analysis Test: An initial report. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA: Learning Research and Developmental Center.
Rourke, B. P., & Del Dotto, J. E. (1994). Learning disabilities: A neuropsychological perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Saigal, S., Szatmari, P., Rosenbaum, P., Campbell, D., & King, S. (1991). Cognitive abilities and school performance of extremely low birthweight children and matched term control children at age 8 years: A regional study. Journal of Pediatrics, 118, 751-760.
Satz, P., Friel, J., & Rudegeair, F. (1974). Differential changes in the acquisition of developmental skills in children who later become dyslexic: A three-year follow-up. Plasticity and recovery of function in the central nervous system. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Schraeder, B. D., Heverly, M. A., O'Brien, C., & Goodman, R. (1997). Academic achievement and educational resource use of very low birth weight (VLBW) survivors. Pediatric Nursing, 23, 39-44.
Seidman, L. J., Buka, S. L., Goldstein, J. M., Horton, N. J., Rieder, R. O., & Tsuang, M. T. (2000). The relationship of prenatal and perinatal complications to cognitive functioning at age 7 in the New England Cohorts of the National Collaborative Perinatal Project. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26, 309-321.
Strauss, R. S. (2000). Adult functional outcome of those born small for gestational age: Twenty-six-year follow-up of the 1970 British Birth Cohort. JAMA, 283, 625-632.
Taylor, H. G., Hack, M., Klein, N., & Schatschneider, C. (1995). Achievement in children with birth weights less than 750 g with normal cognitive abilities: Evidence for specific learning disabilities. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 20, 703-719.
Teplin, S. W., Burchinal, M., Johnson-Martin, N., Humphrey, R. A., & Kraybill, E. N. (1991). Neurodevelopmental, health, and growth status at age 6 years of children with birth weights less than 1001 g. Journal of Pediatrics, 118, 768-777.
Waber, D. P., & McCormick, M. C. (1995). Late neuropsychological outcomes in preterm infants of normal IQ: Selective vulnerability of the visual system. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 20, 721-735.
Wechsler, D. (1974). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Revised. New York, NY: Psychological Corporation.
Woodcock, R. W., & Johnson, M. B. (1991). Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery—Revised. Allen, TX: DLM Teaching Resources.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Breslau, N., Johnson, E.O. & Lucia, V.C. Academic Achievement of Low Birthweight Children at Age 11: The Role of Cognitive Abilities at School Entry. J Abnorm Child Psychol 29, 273–279 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010396027299
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010396027299