Skip to main content
Log in

The Biophilia Hypothesis and Life in the 21st Century: Increasing Mental Health or Increasing Pathology?

Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Wilson's biophilia hypothesis includes the claim that, as a consequence of evolution, humans have an “innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes.” A review of various literatures converges to support this central claim. One area of support for our innate affiliation with nature comes from research demonstrating increased psychological well-being upon exposure to natural features and environments. Support also comes from the strength and prevalence of phobic responses to stimuli of evolutionary significance and near absence of such responses to potentially dangerous human-made stimuli. That survival emotions of equivalent intensity and prevalence have failed to develop in response to modern life-threatening stimuli can be explained by the extremely rapid process of change and progress that has occurred post World War II and continues at an ever increasingly rapid pace. Given that our modern ways of living, as prescribed by Western industrialised culture, stand in stark contrast to our evolutionary history, it is proposed that we may currently be witnessing the beginnings of significant adverse outcomes for the human psyche.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

REFERENCES

  • Agras, S., D. Sylvester and D. Oliveau: 1969,'The epidemiology of common fears and phobia', Comprehensive Psychiatry 10, pp. 151–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, W., C. Reid and G. Jennings: 1992,'Pet ownership and risk factors for cardiovascular disease', Medical Journal of Australia 157, pp. 298–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baskin, Y.: 1997, The work of nature: How the diversity of life sustains us. (Island Press, Washington DC).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernaldez, F.G., R.P. Abello and D, Gallardo: 1989,'Environmental challenge and environmental preference: Age and sex effects', Journal of Environmental Management 28, pp. 53–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brinkerhoff, M.B. and J.C. Jacob: 1986,'Quality of life in an alternative lifestyle: The smallholding movement', Social Indicators Research 18, pp. 153–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C.S. and M.F. Scheier: 1990,'Origins and functions of positive and negative affects: A control-process view', Psychological Review 97, pp. 19–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chokor, B.A. and S.A. Mene: 1992,'An assessment of preference for landscapes in the developing world: A case study of Warri, Nigeria, and Environs', Journal of Environmental Management 34, pp. 237–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, E.W., R.L. Hodes and P.J. Lang: 1986,'Preparedness and phobia: Effects of stimulus content on human visceral conditioning', Journal of Abnormal Psychology 95, pp. 195–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J.E., and N. Sartorius: 1977,'Cultural and temporal variations in schizophrenia', British Journal of Psychiatry 130, pp. 50–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R.A.: 1995,'On the trail of the gold standard for subjective well-being', Social Indicators Research 35, pp. 179–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R.A.: (in press),'Normative life satisfaction: Measurement issues and a homeostatic model', in B. Zumbo (ed.), Methodological Developments and Issues in Quality of Life Research (Kluwer, Amsterdam).

  • Cummins, R.A.: 2000,'Personal income and subjective well-being: A review', Journal of Happiness Studies 1, (in press).

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M.: 1997, Finding Flow: The Psychology of Engagement with Everyday Life (Basic Books, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin.: 1877,'A biographical sketch of an infant', Mind 2, pp. 285–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey, G.C.L.: 1994,'Self-reported fears to common indigenous animals in an adult UK population: The role of disgust sensitivity', British Journal of Psychology 85, pp. 541–554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., E.M. Suh, R.E. Lucas and H.L. Smith: 1999,'Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress', Psychological Bulletin 125, pp. 276–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., E.M. Suh, H. Smith and L. Shao: 1995,'National differences in reported subjective well-being: Why do they occur?' Social Indicators Research 34, pp. 7–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeSchriver, M. and C. Riddick: 1990,'Effects of watching aquariums on elders' stress', Anthrozoos 4, pp. 44–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Draguns, J.G.: 1986,'Culture and Psychopathology: What is known about their relationship?' Australian Journal of Psychology 38, pp. 329–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Draguns, J.G.: 1990,'Applications of cross-cultural psychology in the field of mental health', in R.W. Brislin (ed.), Applied Cross-Cultural Psychology (Sage, Newbury Park).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fave, M.D. and F. Massimini: 1988,'Modernization and the changing contexts of flow in work and leisure', in M. Csiksentmihalyi and I.S. Csiksentmihalyi (eds.), Optimal Experience: Psychological Studies of Flowin Consciousness (Cambridge University Press, New York), (pp. 193–213).

    Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S.: 1997,'Positive psychological states and coping with severe stress', Social Science and Medicine 45, pp. 1207–1221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fombonne, E.: 1998,'Increased rates of psychosocial disorder in youth', European Archives of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 248, pp. 14–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Francis, G., J. Turner and S. Johnson: 1985,'Domestic animal visitation as therapy with adult home residents', International Journal of Nursing Studies 22, pp. 201–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, E., A.H. Katcher, J.J. Lynch and Messent, 1983,'Social interaction and blood pressure: Influence of animal companions', Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 171, pp. 461–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P.: 1998,'Evolutionary psychopathology: Why isn't the mind designed better than it is?' British Journal of Medical Psychology 71, pp. 353–373.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gullone, E.: 1993, Self-reports of Normative Fear in Children and Adolescents: A Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Investigation, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, (Monash University, Melbourne, Australia).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gullone, E.: 1996,'Developmental psychopathology and normal fear', Behaviour Change 13, pp. 143–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gullone, E.: 2000,'The development of normal fear: A century of research', Clinical Psychology Review, 20 (4), pp. 429–451.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, L.A., B.L. Hart and B. Bergin: 1987,'Socialising effects of service dogs for people with disabilities', Anthrozoos 1, pp. 41–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartig, T., M. Mang and G.W. Evans: 1991,'Restorative effects of natural environment experiences', Environment and Behavior 23, pp. 3–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heine, S.J., D.R. Lehman, H.R. Markus and S. Kitayama: 1999,'Is there a universal need for positive self-regard', Psychological Review 106, pp. 766–794.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hugdahl, K. and A.C. Karker: 1981,'Biological versus experiential factors in phobic conditioning', Behavior Research and Therapy 19, pp. 109–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R.E.: 1990,'Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model', Psychological Bulletin 107, pp. 156–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jablensky, A., N. Sartorines, G. Ernberg, M. Arker, A. Korten, J.E. Cooper, R. Day and A. Bertelien: 1992,'Schizophrenia: Manifestations, incidence, and course in difference cultures: A World Health Organisation ten-country study', Psychological Medicine 20, entire issue.

  • Jacob, J.C. and M.B. Brinkerhoff: 1997,'Values, performance and subjective well-being in the sustainability movement: An elaboration of multiple discrepancies theory', Social Indicators Research 42, pp. 171–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacob, J.C. and M.B. Brinkerhoff: 1999,'Mindfulness and subjective well-being in the sustainability movement: A further elaboration of multiple discrepancies theory', Social Indicators Research 46, pp. 341–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, P.H.: 1997,'Developmental psychology and the biophilia hypothesis: Children's affiliation with nature', Developmental Review 17, pp. 1–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, R.: 1974,'Some psychological benefits of an outdoor challenge program', Environment and Behavior 6, pp. 101–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, R.: 1977,'Patterns of environmental preference,' Environment and Behavior 9, pp. 195–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, R. and S. Kaplan: 1989, The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective (Cambridge University Press, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, S.: 1987,'Aesthetics, affect, and cognition: Environmental preference from an evolutionary perspective', Environment and Behavior 19, pp. 3–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, S., R. Kaplan and J.S. Wendt: 1972,'Rated preference and complexity for natural and urban visual material', Perception and Psychophysics 12, pp. 354–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan S. and J.F. Talbot: 1983,'Psychological benefits of a wilderness experience', in I. Altman and J.F. Wohlwill (eds.), Human Behaviour and Environment: Advances in Theory and Research, Vol. 6: Behavior and the Natural Environment (Plenum, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Katcher, A., E. Friedman, A. Beck, and J. Lynch: 1983,'Looking, talking, and blood pressure: The physiological consequences of interaction with the living environment', in A. Katcher and A. Beck (eds.), New Perspectives on our Lives with Companion Animals (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia).

    Google Scholar 

  • Katcher, A., H. Segal and A. Beck: 1984,'Comparison of contemplation and hypnosis for the reduction of anxiety and discomfort during dental surgery', American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 27, pp. 14–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katcher, A. and G. Wilkins: 1993,'Dialogue with animals: Its nature and culture', in S.R. Kellert and E.O. Wilson (eds.), The Biophilia Hypothesis (Island Press, Washington DC), pp. 173–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellert, S.R.: 1983,'Affective, cognitive and evaluative perceptions of animals', in I. Altman and J. Wohlwill(eds.), Behavior and the Natural Environment (Chap. 7) (Plenum, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellert, S.R.: 1985,'Attitudes toward animals: Age related development among children', Journal of Environmental Education 16, pp. 29–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellert, S.R.: 1991,'Japanese perceptions of wildlife', Conservation Biology 5, pp. 297–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellert, S.R.: 1993,'The biological basis for human values of nature', in S.R. Kellert and E.O. Wilson (eds.). The Biophilia Hypothesis (Island Press, Washington DC), pp. 42–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellert, S.R.: 1996, The Value of Life (Island Press, Washington DC).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellert, S.R. and E.O. Wilson: 1993, (eds.), The Biophilia Hypothesis (Island Press, Washington DC).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman, A.: 1982,'Neurasthenia and depression: A study of somatization and culture in China', Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry 6, pp. 117–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klerman, G.L. and M.M. Weissman: 1989,'Increasing rates of depression', Journal of the American Medical Association 261, pp. 2229–2234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. and C. Gatsonis: 1994,'Secular trends in age at onset of major depressive disorder in a clinical sample of children', Journal of Psychiatric Research 28, pp. 319–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, B. and E. Gullone: 1999,'Common fears: A comparison of self-generated and fear survey schedule generated fears of adolescents', Journal of Genetic Psychology 160, pp. 194–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leckman, J.F. and L.C. Mayes: 1998,'Understanding developmental psychopathology: How useful are evolutionary accounts?' Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 37, pp. 1011–1021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood, R.: 1983,'The influence of animals on social perception', in A. Katcher and A. Beck (eds.) New Perspectives on Our Lives with Companion Animals (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia).

    Google Scholar 

  • Marks, I.M.: 1969, Fears and Phobias (Heinemann, London).

    Google Scholar 

  • Matchett, G. and G.C.L. Davey: 1991,'A test of a disease-avoidance model of animal phobias', Behaviour Research and Therapy 29, pp. 91–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNally, R.J.: 1987,'Preparedness and phobias: A review', Psychological Bulletin 101, pp. 283–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, H.B.M.: 1982,'Comparative psychiatry', (Springer-Verlag, Berlin).

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, H.B.M., E.W. Wittkower and N.A. Chance: 1967,'Cross-cultural inquiry into the symptomatology of depression: A preliminary report', International Journal of Psychiatry 3, pp. 6–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Health and Medical Research Council: 1997, Depression in young people: Clinical practice guidelines (Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra).

    Google Scholar 

  • Neale, M.C., E.E. Walters, L.J. Eaves, H.H. Maes and K.S. Kendler: 1994,'Multivariate genetic analysis of twin-family data on fear: Mixed models', Behavior Genetics 24, pp. 119–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newby, J.: 1999, The Animal Attraction (Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Sydney).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohman, A.: 1986,'Face the beast and fear the face: Animal and social fears as prototypes for evolutionary analyses of emotion', Psychophysiology 23, pp. 123–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohman, A., U. Dimberg and L.G. Ost: 1985,'Animal and social phobias: Biological constraints on learned fear responses', in S. Reiss and R.R. Bootzin (eds.), Theoretical Issues in Behavior (Academic Press, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohman, A. G. Erixon and I. Loftberg: 1975,'Phobias and preparedness: Phobic versus neutral pictures as conditioned stimuli for human autonomic responses', Journal of Abnormal Psychology 84, pp. 41–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, R., L.G. Tassinary, R.S. Ulrich, M.R. Hebl and M. Grossman-Alexander: 1998,'The viewfrom the road: Implications for stress recovery and immunization', Journal of Environmental Psychology 18, pp. 113–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, K., D.W. Fulker and R.J. Rose: 1987,'Path analysis of seven fear factors in adult twin and sibling pairs and their parents', Genetic Epidemiology 4, pp. 345–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rachman, S.: 1977,'The conditioning theory of fear acquisition: A critical examination', Behaviour Research and Therapy 15, pp. 375–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rachman, S.: 1991,'Neo-conditioning and the classical theory of fear acquisition', Clinical Psychology Review 11, pp. 155–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rachman, S. and M.E.P. Seligman: 1976,'Unprepared phobias: “Be prepared”', Behaviour Research and Therapy 14, pp. 333–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose, R.J. and W.B. Ditto: 1983,'A developmental-genetic analysis of common fears from early adolescence to early adulthood', Child Development 53, pp. 361–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roszak, T.: 1995,'The greening of psychology: Exploring the ecological unconscious', The Gestalt Journal 18, pp. 9–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz, J.P. and F.G. Bernaldez: 1982,'Landscape perception by its traditional users: The ideal landscape of Madrid livestock raisers', Landscape Planning 9, pp. 279–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M.: 1995,'Causal concepts and their testing', in M. Rutter and D.J. Smith (eds.), Psychosocial Disorders in Young People: Time Trends and their Causes (Wiley, Chichester).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. and D.J. Smith, (eds.): 1995, Psychosocial Disorders in Young People: Time Trends and their Causes (Wiley, Chichester).

    Google Scholar 

  • Saunders, P.: 1999,'Capitalism and the environment', in M.J. Smith (ed.), Thinking Through the Environment (Routledge, London), pp. 269–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M.E.P.: 1970,'On the generality of the laws of learning', Psychological Review 77, pp. 406–418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M.E.P.: 1971,'Phobias and preparedness', Behavior Therapy 2, pp. 307–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shafer, E.L., J.F. Hamilton and E.A. Schmidt: 1969,';Natural landscape preferences: A predictive model', Journal of Leisure Research 1, pp. 187–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheets, V.L. and Manzer, C.D: 1991, Affect, cognition, and urban vegetation: Some effects of adding trees along city streets. Environment and Behavior 23, pp. 285–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, P.: 1993,'On animal friends', in S.R. Kellert and E.O. Wilson (eds.), The Biophilia Hypothesis (Island Press, Washington DC), pp. 275–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulrich, R.S.: 1977,'Visual landscape preference: A model and application', Man-Environment Systems 7, pp. 279–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulrich, R.S.: 1981,'Psychological and recreational benefits of a neighborhood park', Journal of Leisure Research 13, pp. 43–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulrich, R.S.: 1984,'View through a window may influence recovery from surgery', Science 224, pp. 420–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulrich, R.S.: 1986,'Human responses to vegetation and landscapes', Landscape and Urban Planning 13, pp. 29–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulrich, R.S.: 1993,'Biophilia, biophobia, and natural landscapes', in S.R. Kellert and E.O. Wilson (eds.), The Biophilia Hypothesis (Island Press, Washington DC), pp. 73–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E.O.: 1975, Sociobiology: The NewSynthesis (Addison-Wesley, Cambridge, M.A).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E.O.: 1984, Biophilia (Harvard University Press, Massachusetts).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E.O.: 1992, The Diversity of Life (Harvard University Press, Massachusetts).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E.O.: 1993,'Biophilia and the conservation ethic', in S.R. Kellert and E.O. Wilson (eds.), The Biophilia Hypothesis (Island Press, Washington DC), pp. 31–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, D.R.: 1998,'Evolutionary epidemiology and manic depression', British Journal of Medical Psychology 71, pp. 375–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organisation: 1973, Report of the international pilot study of Schizophrenia (Author, Geneva).

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organisation: 1979, Schizophrenia: An International Follow-up Study. (John Wiley, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organisation: 1983, Depressive Disorders in Different Cultures: Report of the WHO Collaborative Study of Standardized Assessment of Depressive Disorders (Author, Geneva).

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organisation: 1999, The World Health Report 1999: Making a Difference (Author, Geneva).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Eleonora Gullone.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gullone, E. The Biophilia Hypothesis and Life in the 21st Century: Increasing Mental Health or Increasing Pathology?. Journal of Happiness Studies 1, 293–322 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010043827986

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010043827986

Navigation