Abstract
Marine microbial communities adapt rapidly to changingenvironmental conditions, including anthropogenicstress. Adaptation involves a wide range ofstrategies, including, (a) formation of resistant,dormant stages, (b) initiation of repair mechanisms, (c)immobilization of toxic chemicals, (d) active transportof chemicals out of the cell, (e) use of contaminantchemicals as carbon or energy sources, and (f)transformation of contaminants to less toxic or morevolatile forms.
Adaptation responses are generally plasmid- orchromosomally-mediated and controlled throughinduction or derepression of a variety of biochemicalpathways. Characterization of microbial communityresponses at the molecular level provides biomarkersof contaminant exposure which in turn may be used toprovide an overall picture of ecosystem health. Thisreview will discuss the interactions betweenmicroorganisms and environmental contaminants and thepotential use of microbial biomarkers to assess thehealth of the microbial ecosystem.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abad, F. X., R. M. Pinto, R. Gajardo & A. Bosch, 1997. Viruses in mussels: Public health implications and depuration. J. Food Protect 60(6): 677–681.
Abramowicz, D. A., 1995. Aerobic and anaerobic PCB biodegradation in the environment. Environ. Health Perspect. 103(suppl 5): 97–99.
Alldredge, A. L. & Y. Cohen, 1987. Can microscale chemical patches persist in the sea? Microelectrode study of marine snow, fecal pellets. Science 235: 689–691.
Atlas, R. M., A. Horowitz, M. Krichevsky & A. K. Bej, 1991. Response of microbial populations to environmental disturbance. Micro. Ecol. 22: 249–256.
Bamdad, M., S. Reader, C. A. Groliere, J. Bohatier & F. Denizeau, 1997. Uptake and efflux of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by Tetrahymena pyriformis: Evidence for a resistance mechanism. Cytometry 28(2): 170–175.
Barkay, T., C. Liebert & M. Gillman, 1989a. Hybridization of DNA probes with whole-community genome for detection of genes that encode microbial responses to pollutants: Mer genes and mercury resistance. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55(6): 1574–1577.
Barkay, T., C. Liebert & M. Gillman, 1989b. Environmental significance of the potential for transposon mer(Tn21)-mediated reduction of ionic mercury to elemental mercury in natural waters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55(5): 1196–1202.
Barkay, T., R. R. Turner, A. Vandenbrook & C. Liebert, 1991. The relationships of mercury(II) volatilization from a freshwater pond to the abundance of mer genes in the gene pool of the indigenous microbial community. Micro. Ecol. 21(2): 151–162.
Barkay, T., S. Nazaret & W. Jeffrey, 1995. Degradative genes in the environment. In: L. L. Young & C.E. Cerniglia (eds), Microbial Transformation and Degradation of Toxic Organic Chemicals, pp. 545–577. Wiley-Liss, New York.
Bej, A. K., M. H. Mahbubani & R. M. Atlas, 1991a. Detection of viable Legionella pneumophila in water by polymerase chain-reaction and gene probe methods. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57(2): 597–600.
Bej, A. K., S. C. McCarty & R. M. Atlas, 1991b. Detection of coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli by multiplex polymerase chain-reaction – comparison with defined substrate and plating methods for water-quality monitoring. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57(8): 2429–2432.
Bej, A. K., M. H. Mahbubani, J. L. Dicesare & R. M. Atlas, 1991c. Polymerase chain reaction-gene probe detection of microorganisms by using filter-concentrated samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57(12): 3529–3534.
Bej, A. K., J. L. Dicesare, L. Haff & R. M. Atlas, 1991d. Detection of Escherichia coli and Shigella spp. in water by using the polymerase chain-reaction and gene probes for UID. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57(4): 1013–1017.
Bej, A. K., W. Y. Ng, S. Morgan, D. D. Jones & M. H. Mahbubani, 1996. Detection of viable Vibrio cholerae by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-CR). Mol. Biotechnol. 5(1): 1–10.
Berardesco, G., S. Dyhrman, E. Gallagher & M. P. Shiaris, 1998. Spatial and temporal variation of phenanthrene-degrading bacteria in intertidal sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64(7): 2560–2565.
Berk, S. G., R. S. Ting, G.W. Turner & R. J. Ashburn, 1998. Production of respirable vesicles containing live Legionella pneumophila cells by two Acanthamoeba spp. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 279–286.
Bogosian, G., P. J. L. Morris & J. P. O'Neil, 1998. A mixed culture recovery method indicates that enteric bacteria do not enter the viable but nonculturable state. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 1736–1742.
Bothner, M. H., H. Takada, I. T. Knight, R. T. Hill, B. Butman, J. W. Farrington, R. R. Colwell & J. F. Grassle, 1994. Sewage contamination in sediments beneath a deep-ocean dump site off New York. Mar. Environ. Res. 38(1): 43–59.
Brasher, C. W., A. DePaola, D. D. Jones & A. K. Bej, 1998. Detection of microbial pathogens in shellfish with multiplex PCR. Curr. Microbiol. 37(2): 101–107.
Brock, T. D. & Madigan, 1994. Biology of Microorganisms, 7th edn. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Bruce, K. D., 1997. Analysis of mer gene subclasses within bacterial communities in soils and sediments resolved by fluorescent-PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism profiling. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63(12): 4914–4919.
Bruce, K. D., W. D. Hiorns, J. L. Hobman, A.M. Osborn, P. Strike & D. A. Ritchie, 1992. Amplification of DNA from native populations of soil bacteria by using the polymerase chain reaction. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58(10): 3413–3416.
Buswell, C. M., Y. M. Herlihy, L. M. Lawrence, J. T. M. McGuiggan, P. D. Marsh, C. W. Keevil & S. A. Leach, 1998. Extended survival and persistence of Campylobacter spp. in water and aquatic biofilms and their detection by immuno-fluorescent-antibody and-rRNA staining. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 733–741.
Capone, D.G. & J. E. Bauer, 1992. Microbial processes in coastal pollution. In: R. Mitchell (ed.), Environmental Microbiology, pp. 191–237. Wiley, New York.
Cervantes, C., G. Ji, J. L. Ramirez & S. Silver, 1994. Resistance to arsenic compounds in microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 15(4): 355–367.
Chalmers, R. M., A. P. Sturdee, P. Mellors, V. Nicholson, F. Lawlor, F. Kenny & P. Timpson, 1997. Cryptosporidium parvum in environmental samples in the Sligo area, Republic of Ireland: A preliminary report. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 25(5): 380–384.
Chaudhry, G. R. & S. Chapalamadugu, 1991. Biodegradation of halogenated organic-compounds. Microbiol. Rev. 55(1): 59–79.
Cherry, D. S., R. K. Guthrie & R. S. Harvey, 1974a. Temperature influence on bacterial populations in three aquatic systems. Wat. Res. Bull. 8: 149–155.
Cherry, D. S., R. K. Guthrie & R. S. Harvey, 1974b. Bacterial populations of aquatic systems receiving different types of stress. Wat. Res. Bull. 10: 1009–1016.
Choudhury, P. & R. Kumar, 1996. Association of metal tolerance with multiple antibiotic resistance of enteropathogenic organisms isolated from coastal region of deltaic Sunderbans. Ind. J. Med. Res. 104: 148–151.
Cochran, P. K., C. A. Kellogg & J. H. Paul, 1998. Prophage induction of indigenous marine lysogenic bacteria by environmental pollutants. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 164(0): 125–133.
Colwell, R. R. & W. Spira, 1992. The ecology of cholera. In: D. Barua & W. B. Greenough (eds), Cholera, pp. 107–127. Plenum, New York.
Colwell, R. R., P. R. Brayton, D. J. Grimes, D. B. Roszak, S. A. Huq & L. M. Palmer, 1985. Viable but non-culturable Vibrio cholerae and related pathogens in the environment: Implications for release of genetically engineered microorganisms. Bio/Technol. 3: 817–820.
Dahlberg, C. & M. Hermansson, 1995. Abundance of tn3, tn21, and tn501 transposase (tnpa) sequences in bacterial community DNA from marine environments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61(8): 3051–3056.
Dahlberg, C., C. Linberg, V. L. Torsvik & M. Hermansson, 1997. Conjugative plasmids isolated from bacteria in marine environments show various degrees of homology to each other and are not closely related to well-characterized plasmids. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63(12): 4692–4697.
Das, A., J. M. Modak & K. A. Natarajan, 1998. Surface chemical studies of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans with reference to copper tolerance. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 73(3): 215–222.
Davies, C. M., J. A. Long, M. Donald & N. J. Ashbolt, 1995. Survival of fecal microorganisms in marine and freshwater sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61(5): 1888–1896.
Dean-Ross, D. & A. L. Mills, 1989. Bacterial community structure and function along a heavy metal gradient. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55: 2002–2009.
Diels, L. & M. Mergeay, 1990. DNA probe-mediated detection of resistant bacteria from soils highly polluted by heavy metals. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56(5): 1485–1491.
Duwat, P., S. D. Ehrlich & A. Gruss, 1999. Effects of metabolic flux on stress response pathways in Lactococcus lactis. Mol. Microbiol. 31(3): 845–858.
Erb, R. W. & I. Wagner-Dobler, 1993. Detection of polychlorinated biphenyl degradation genes in polluted sediments by direct DNA extraction and polymerase chain-reaction. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59(12): 4065–4073.
Everaarts, J. M., H. M. Sleiderink, P. J. den Besten, R. S. Halbrook & L. R. Shugart, 1994. Molecular responses as indicators of marine pollution: DNA damage and enzyme induction in Limanda limanda and Asterias rubens. Environ. Health Perspect. 102(suppl 12): 37–43.
Fayer, R., T. K. Graczyk, E. J. Lewis, J. M. Trout & C. A. Farley, 1998. Survival of infectious Cryptosporidium oocysts in seawater and Eastern Oysters (Crassostrea virginica) in the Chesapeake Bay. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 1070–1074.
Fernandez, L. G., Y. O. Herrero & A. Novillo, 1998. Toxicity and bioaccumulation of lead in marine protozoa communities. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety. 39(3): 172–178.
Ford, T. E. & R. Mitchell R., 1992. Microbial transport of toxic metals. In: R. Mitchell (ed.), Environmental Microbiology, pp. 83–101. Wiley, New York.
Ford, T. E., J. Sorci & J. Shine, 1994. Microbial transport of toxic metals. In: C.R. Cothern (ed.), Trace Substances, Environment and Health, pp. 9–20. Science Reviews, Northwood, UK.
Ford, T. E., 1993. The microbial ecology of water distribution and outfall systems. In: T. E. Ford (ed.), Aquatic Microbiology; an Ecological Approach, pp. 455–482. Blackwell, Boston.
Ford, T. E., 1994. Pollutant effects on the microbial ecosystem. Environ. Health Perspect. 102(12): 45–48.
Ford, T. E., J. S. Maki & R. Mitchell, 1995. Metal-microbe interactions. In: C. Gaylarde & H. Videla (eds), Bioextraction and Biodeterioration of Metals, pp. 1–23. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Ford, T. E. & D. Ryan, 1995. Toxic metals in aquatic ecosystems: a microbiological perspective. Environ. Health Perspect. 103(1): 25–28.
Ford, T., J. Sorci, R. Ika & J. P. Shine, 1998. Interactions between metals and microbial communities in New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts. Environ. Health Perspect. 106: 1033–1039.
Fortin, N., R. R. Fulthorpe, D. G. Allen & C. W. Greer, 1998. Molecular analysis of bacterial isolates and total community DNA from kraft pulp mill effluent treatment systems. Can. J. Microbiol. 44(6): 537–546.
Francisco, R. L., R. A. Mah & A. C. Rabin, 1973. Acridene orange-epifluorescence technique for counting bacteria in natural waters. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 92: 416–421.
Fulthorpe, R. R. & R. C. Wyndham, 1989. Survival and activity of a 3-chlorobenzoate-catabolic genotype in a natural system. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55(6): 1584–1590.
Fulthorpe, R. R. & R. C. Wyndham, 1992. Involvement of a chlorobenzoate-catabolic transposon, Tn5271, in community adaptation to chlorobiphenyl, chloroaniline, and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in a freshwater ecosystem. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58(1): 314–325.
Fulthorpe, R. R., C. McGowan, O. V. Maltseva, W. E. Holben & J. M. Tiedje, 1995. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid-degrading bacteria contain mosaics of catabolic genes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61(9): 3274–3281.
Furukawa, K. & N. Kimura, 1995. Biochemistry and genetics of PCB metabolism. Environ. Health Perspect. 103(suppl 5): 21–23.
Garcia-Valdes, E., E. Cozar, R. Rotger, J. Lalucat & J. Ursing, 1988. New naphthalene-degrading marine Pseudomonas strains. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54(10): 2478–2485.
Gauthier, M. J., B. Lafay, R. Christen, L. Fernandez, M. Acquaviva, P. Bonin & J. C. Bertrand, 1992. Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus gen. nov., sp. nov., a new, extremely halotolerant, hydrocarbon-degrading marine bacterium. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 42(4): 568–576.
Geiselbrecht, A. D., R. P. Herwig, J.W. Deming & J. T. Staley, 1996. Enumeration and phylogenetic analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-degrading marine bacteria from Puget sound sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62(9): 3344–3349.
Geiselbrecht, A. D., B. P. Hedlund, M. A. Tichi & J. T. Staley, 1998. Isolation of marine polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-degrading Cycloclasticus strains from the Gulf of Mexico and comparison of their PAH degradation ability with that of Puget Sound Cycloclasticus strains. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 4703–4710.
Gonzalez, J. M., F. Mayer, M. A. Moran, R. E. Hodson & W. B. Whitman, 1997. Microbulbifer hydrolyticus gen. nov., sp. nov., and Marinobacterium georgiense gen. nov., sp. nov., two marine bacteria from a lignin-rich pulp mill waste enrichment. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 47(2): 369–376.
Gordon, A. S., V. J. Harwood & S. Sayyar, 1993. Growth, copper-tolerant cells, and extracellular protein production in copper-stressed chemostat cultures of Vibrio alginolyticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59(1): 60–66.
Gordon, A. S., L. D. Howell & V. Harwood, 1994. Responses of diverse heterotrophic bacteria to elevated copper concentrations. Can. J. Microbiol. 40(5): 408–411.
Guthrie, R. K., D. S. Cherry & R. N. Ferebee, 1974. A comparison of thermal loading effects on bacterial populations in polluted and non-polluted aquatic systems. Wat. Res. 8: 143–148.
Guthrie, R. K., D. S. Cherry & F. L. Singleton, 1975. Effects of nitrate and phosphate concentration on natural aquatic bacterial populations. Wat. Res. Bull. 11(6): 1131–1136.
Guthrie, R. K., D. S. Cherry & F. L. Singleton, 1978. Responses of heterotrophic bacterial populations to pH changes in coal ash effluent. Wat. Res. Bull. 14: 803–808.
Guthrie, R. K., F. L. Singleton & D. S. Cherry, 1977. Aquatic bacterial populations and heavy metals-II. Influence of chemical content of aquatic environments on bacterial uptake of chemical elements. Wat. Res. 11: 643–646.
Hamann, C., J. Hegemann & A. Hildebrandt, 1999. Detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation genes in different soil bacteria by polymerase chain reaction and DNA hybridization. FEMS Micro. Lett. 173: 255–263.
Harb, O. S., C. Venkataraman, B. J. Haack, L.-Y. Gao & Y. Abu Kwaik, 1998. Heterogeneity in the attachment and uptake mechanisms of the Legionnaires' disease bacterium, Legionella pneumophila, by protozoan hosts. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 126–132.
Harwood, V. J. & A. S. Gordon, 1994. Regulation of extracellular copper-binding proteins in copper-resistant and copper-sensitive mutants of Vibrio alginolyticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60(6): 1749–1753.
Hedlund, B. P., A. D. Geiselbrecht, T. J. Bair & J. T. Staley, 1999. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation by a new marine bacterium, Neptunomonas naphthovorans gen. nov., sp. nov. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65(1): 251–259.
Herrick, J. B., E. L. Madsen, C. A. Batt & W. C. Ghiorse, 1993. Polymerase chain reaction amplification of naphthalenecatabolic and 16S rRNA gene sequences from indigenous sediment bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59(3): 687–694.
Herrick, J. B., K. K. G. Stuart, W. C. Ghiorse & E. L. Madsen, 1997. Natural horizontal transfer of a naphthalane dioxygenase gene between bacteria native to a coal tar-contaminated field site. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63(61): 2330–2337.
Hobbie, J. E., R. J. Daley & S. Jasper, 1977. Use of nuclepore filters for counting bacteria by fluorescence microscopy. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 33: 1225–1228.
Holben, W. E., B. M. Schroeter, V. G. M. Calabrese, R. H. Olsen, J. K. Kukor, V. O. Biederbeck, A. E. Smith & J. M. Tiedje, 1992. Gene probe analysis of soil microbial populations selected by amendment with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58(12): 3941–3948.
Hood, M. A., J. B. Guckert, D. C. White & F. Deck, 1986. The effect of nutrient deprivation on lipid carbohydrates, DNA, RNA, and protein of Vibrio cholerae. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 52(4): 788–793.
Huang, C. T., F. P. Yu, G. A. McFeters & P. S. Stewart, 1995. Nonuniform spatial patterns of respiratory activity within biofilms during disinfection. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61: 2252–2256.
Hussong, D., R. R. Colwell, M. O'Brien, E. Weiss, A. D. Pearson, R. M. Weiner & W. D. Burge, 1987. Viable Legionella pneumophila not detectable by culture on agar media. Bio/Technol. 5: 947–950.
Isken, S. & J. A. de Bont, 1998. Bacteria tolerant to organic solvents. Extremophiles 2(3): 229–238.
Jeffrey, W. H., S. Nazaret & T. Barkay, 1996. Detection of the merA gene and its expression in the environment. Microb. Ecol. 32(3): 293–303.
Johnson, D. C., C. E. Enriquez, I. L. Pepper, T. L. Davis, C. P. Gerba & J. B. Rose, 1997. Survival of Giardia, Cryptosporidium, poliovirus and Salmonella in marine waters. Wat. Sci. Technol. 35(11–12): 261–268.
Jones, D. D., R. Law & A. K. Bej, 1993. Detection of Salmonella spp. in oysters using polymerase chain-reactions (pcr) and gene probes. J. Food Sci. 58(6): 1191–1197.
Ka, J. O., W. E. Holben & J.M. Tiedje, 1994a. Use of gene probes to aid in recovery and identification of functionally dominant 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid-degrading populations in soil. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60(4): 1116–1120.
Ka, J. O., W. E. Holben & J. M. Tiedje, 1994b. Genetic and phenotypic diversity of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)-degrading bacteria isolated from 2,4-D-treated field soils. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60(4): 1106–1115.
Ka, J. O., P. Burauel, J. A. Bronson, W. E. Holben & J. M. Tiedje, 1995. DNA probe analysis of microbial community selected in field by long-term 2,4-D application. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 59(6): 1581–1587.
Kamagata, Y., R. R. Fulthorpe, K. Tamura, H. Takami, L. J. Forney & J.M. Tiedje, 1997. Pristine environments harbor a new group of oligotrophic 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid-degrading bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63(61): 2266–2272.
Kirchman, D. L., 1993. Particulate detritus and bacteria in marine environments. In: T. E. Ford (ed.), Aquatic Microbiology – an Ecological Approach, pp. 321–342. Blackwell, Boston.
Kjelleberg, S., K. B. G. Flärdh, T. Nyström & D. J. W. Moriarty, 1993. Growth limitation and starvation of bacteria. In: T. E. Ford (ed.), Aquatic Microbiology – an Ecological Approach, pp. 289–320. Blackwell, Boston.
King, C. H., E. B. Shotts, R. E. Wooley & K. G. Porter, 1988. Survival of coliforms and bacterial pathogens within protozoa during chlorination. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54: 3023–3033.
Korber, D. R., A. Choi, G. M. Wolfaardt, S. C. Ingham & D. E. Caldwell, 1997. Substratum topography influences susceptibility of Salmonella enteritidis biofilms to trisodium phosphate. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63: 3352–3358.
Krovacek, K., V. Pasquale, S. B. Baloda, V. Soprano, M. Conte & S. Dumontet, 1994. Comparison of putative virulence factors in Aeromonas hydrophila strains isolated from the marine environment and human diarrheal cases in southern Italy. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60(4): 1379–1382.
Larrick, S. R., J. R. Clark, D. S. Cherry & J. Cairns, 1981. Structural and functional changes of aquatic heterotrophic bacteria to thermal, heavy, and fly ash effluents. Wat. Res. 15: 875–880.
Layton, A. C., M. Muccini, M. M. Ghosh & G. S. Sayler, 1998. Construction of a bioluminescent reporter strain to detect polychlorinated biphenyls. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:(12): 5023–5026.
Leahy, J. G. & R. R. Colwell, 1990. Microbial degradation of hydrocarbons in the environment. Microbiol. Rev. 54(3): 305–315.
Lin, C. & B. H. Olson, 1995. Occurrence of cop-like copper resistance genes among bacteria isolated from a water distribution system. Can. J. Microbiol. 41(7): 642–646.
Lovett, C. M., T. M. Ogara & J. N. Woodruff, 1994. Analysis of the SOS inducing signal in Bacillus subtilis using Escherichia coli LexA as a probe. J. Bacteriol. 176(16): 4914–4923.
MacGillivray, A. R. & M. P. Shiaris, 1993. Biotransformation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by yeasts isolated from coastal sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59(5): 1613–1618.
Mahler, I., H. S. Levinson, Y. Wang & H. O. Halvorson, 1986. Cadmium-and mercury-resistant Bacillus strains from a salt marsh and from Boston Harbor. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 52(6): 1293–1298.
Maki, J. S., 1993. The air–water interface as an extreme environment. In: T. E. Ford (ed.), Aquatic Microbiology – an Ecological Approach, pp. 409–440. Blackwell, Boston.
Maltseva, O., C. McGowan, R. Fulthorpe & P. Oriel, 1996. Degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid by haloalkaliphilic bacteria. Microbiol. Read. 142(5): 1115–1122.
Martinez-Manzanares, E., M. A. Morinigo, R. Cornax, F. Egea & J. J. Borrego, 1991a. Relationship between classical indicators and several pathogenic microorganisms involved in shellfish-borne diseases. J. Food Protect. 54(9): 711–717.
Martinez-Manzanares, E., F. Egea, D. Castro, M. A. Morinigo, P. Romero & J. J. Borrego, 1991b. Accumulation and depuration of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms by the bivalve mollusc, Chamelea gallina, under controlled laboratory conditions. J. Food Protect 54(8): 612–618.
Martinez-Manzanares, E., M. A. Morinigo, D. Castro, M. C. Balebona, J. M. Sanchez & J. J. Borrego, 1992. Influence of the faecal pollution of marine sediments on the microbial content of shellfish. Mar. Poll. Bull. 24(7): 342–349.
Matheson, V. G., L. J. Forney, Y. Suwa, C. H. Nakatsu, A. J. Sexstone & W. E. Holben, 1996. Evidence for acquisition in nature of a chromosomal 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid/alpha-ketoglutarate dioxygenase gene by different Burkholderia spp. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62(7): 2457–2463.
More, M. L., J. B. Herrick, M. C. Silva, W. C. Ghiorse & E. L. Madsen, 1994. Quantitative cell lysis of indigenous micro-organisms and rapid extraction of microbial DNA from sediment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60(5): 1572–1580.
Morita, R. Y, 1986. Starvation-survival: The normal mode of most bacteria in the ocean. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Microbial Ecology, pp. 242–248. Slovene Society for Microbiology, Yugoslavia.
Movahedzadeh, F., M. J. Colston & E. O. Davis, 1997. Determination of DNA sequences required for regulated Mycobacterium tuberculosis RecA expression in response to DNA-amaging agents suggests that two modes of regulation exist. J. Bacteriol. 179(11): 3509–3518.
Mukherjee, T. K., A. Raghavan & D. Chatterji, 1998. Shortage of nutrients in bacteria: The stringent response. Curr. Sci. 75(7): 684–689.
Nazaret, S., W. H. Jeffrey, E. Saouter, R. von Haven & T. Barkay, 1994. MerA gene expression in aquatic environments measured by mRNA production and Hg(II) volatilization. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60(11): 4059–4065.
Newsome, A. L., T. M. Scott, R. F. Benson & B. S. Fields, 1998. Isolation of an amoeba naturally harboring a distinctive Legionella species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64: 1688–1693.
Nies, D. H. & S. Silver, 1995. Ion efflux systems involved in bacterial metal resistances. J. Ind. Microbiol. 14(2): 186–199.
Noble, R. T. & J. A. Fuhrman, 1997. Virus decay and its causes in coastal waters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63(1): 77–83.
Nystrom, T., R. M. Olsson & S. Kjelleberg, 1992. Survival, stress resistance, and alterations in protein expression in the marine vibrio sp. strain S14 during starvation for different individual nutrients. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58(1): 55–65.
Osborn, A. M., K. D. Bruce, P. Strike & D. A. Ritchie, 1993. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis shows divergence among mer determinants from gram-negative soil bacteria indistinguishable by DNA-DNA hybridization. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59(12): 4024–4030.
Osborn, A. M., K. D. Bruce, P. Strike & D. A. Ritchie, 1995. Sequence conservation between regulatory mercury resistance genes in bacteria from mercury polluted and pristine environments. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 18(1): 1–6.
Ostling, J., K. Flardh & S. Kjelleberg, 1995. Isolation of a carbon stavation regulatory mutant in a marine Vibrio strain. J. Bacteriol. 177(23): 6978–6982.
Pearson, A. J., K. D. Bruce, A.M. Osborn, D. A. Ritchie & P. Strike, 1996. Distribution of class II transposase and resolvase genes in soil bacteria and their association with mer genes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62(8): 2961–2965.
Pellizari, V. H., S. Bezborodnikov, J. F. Ii. Quenseni & J. M. Tiedje, 1996. Evaluation of strains isolated by growth on naphthalene and biphenyl for hybridization of genes to dioxygenase probes and polychlorinated biphenyl-degrading ability. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62(6): 2053–2058.
Plumley, F. G., 1997. Marine algal toxins: biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42: 1252–1264.
Power, M., J. R. van der Meer, R. Tchelet, T. Egli & R. Eggen, 1998. Molecular-based methods can contribute to assessments of toxicological risks and bioremediation strategies. J. Microbiol. Meth. 32(2): 107–119.
Rollins, D. M. & R. R. Colwell, 1986. Viable but non-culturable stage of Campylobacter jejuni and its role in survival in the natural aquatic environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 52: 531–538.
Roszak, D. B., D. J. Grimes & R. R. Colwell, 1984. Viable but nonrecoverable stage of Salmonella enteritidis in aquatic systems. Can. J. Microbiol. 30: 334–338.
Rowbury, R. J., 1997. Regulatory components, including integration host factor, CysB and H-NS, that influence pH responses in Escherichia coli. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 24(5): 319–328.
Rowbury, R. J., 1998. Life sciences up-date. Do we need to rethink our ideas on the mechanisms of inducible processes in bacteria? Sci. Prog. 81(3): 193–204.
Rowbury, R. J., T. J. Humphrey & M. Goodson, 1999. Properties of an L-glutamate-induced acid tolerance response which involves the functioning of extracellular induction components. J. Appl. Microbiol. 86(2): 325–330.
Saboo, V. M. & M. A. Gealt, 1998. Gene sequences of the pcpB gene of pentachlorophenol-degrading Sphingomonas chlorophenolica found in nondegrading bacteria. Can. J. Microbiol. 44(7): 667–675.
Sandaa, R. A. & O. Enger, 1994. Transfer in marine sediments of the naturally occurring plasmid pRAS1 encoding multiple antibiotic resistance. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60(12): 4234–4238.
Sawyer, T. K., T. A. Nerad, E. J. Lewis & S. M. McLaughlin, 1993. Acanthamoeba stevensoni n. sp. (Protozoa: Amoebida) from sewage-contaminated shellfish beds in Raritan Bay, New York. J. Euk. Microbiol. 40(6): 742–746.
Shiaris M. P., A. C. Rex, G.W. Pettibone, K. Keay, P. McManus, M. A. Rex, J. Ebersole & E. Gallagher, 1987. Distribution of indicator bacteria and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in sewage-polluted intertidal sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53: 1756–1761.
Silver, S, 1998. Genes for all metals – a bacterial view of the periodic table. The 1996 Thom Award Lecture. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 20(1): 1–12.
Silver, S. & L. T. Phung, 1996. Bacterial heavy metal resistance: New surprises. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 50: 753–789.
Silver, S. & M. Walderhaug, 1992. Gene regulation of plasmidand chromosome-determined inorganic ion transport in bacteria. Micro. Rev. 56(1): 195–228.
Sochard, M. R., D. F. Wilson, B. Austin & R. R. Colwell, 1979. Bacteria associated with the surface and gut of marine copepods. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37(4): 750–759.
Sorci, J. J., 1998. Microbial Diversity and Metal-Resistance Gene Expression in Polluted Sediments from New Bedford Harbor. Massachusetts. D.Sc. thesis, Harvard University.
Sorci, J., J. D. Paulauskis & T. Ford, 1999. 16S rRNA restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of bacterial diversity as a biomarker of ecological health in polluted sediments from New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts, USA. Mar. Poll. Bull. 38(8): 663–675.
Srinivasan, S. & S. Kjelleberg, 1998. Cycles of famine and feast: the starvation and outgrowth strategies of a marine vibrio. J. Biosciences 23(4): 501–511.
Srinivasan, S., J. Ostling, T. Charlton, R. De Nys. K. Takayama & S. Kjelleberg, 1998. Extracellular signal molecule(s) involved in the carbon starvation response of marine Vibrio sp. strain S14. J. Bacteriol. 180(2): 201–209.
Stegeman, J. J. & J. J. Lech, 1991. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase systems in aquatic species: Carcinogen metabolism and biomarkers for carcinogen and pollutant exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 90: 101–109.
Steinert, M., L. Emody, R. Amann & J. Hacker, 1997. Resuscitation of viable but nonculturable Legionella pneumophila Philadelphia JR32 by Acanthamoeba castellanii. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63: 2047–2053.
Stuart-Keil, K. G., A. M. Hohnstock, K. P. Drees, J. B. Herrick & E. L. Madsen, 1998. Plasmids responsible for horizontal transfer of naphthalene catabolism genes between bacteria at a coal tarcontaminated site are homologous to pDTG1 from Pseudomonas putida NCIB 9816-4. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64(10): 3633–3640.
Tonso, N. L., V. G. Matheson & W. E. Holben, 1995. Polyphasic Characterization of a Suite of Bacterial Isolates Capable of Degrading 2,4-D. Micro. Ecol. 30(1): 3–24.
Top, E. M., W. E. Holben & L. J. Forney, 1995. Characterization of diverse 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid-degradative plasmids isolated from soil by complementation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61(5): 1691–1698.
Torsvik, V., F. L. Daae, R. A. Sandaa & L. Ovreas, 1998. Novel techniques for analyzing microbial diversity in natural and perturbed environments. J. Biotechnol. 64(1): 53–62.
Vallaeys, T., R. R. Fulthorpe, A. M. Wright & G. Soulas, 1996. The metabolic pathway of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid degradation involves different families of tfdA and tfdB genes according to PCR-RFLP analysis. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 20(3): 163–172.
van der Meer, J. R., C. Werlen, S. F. Nishino & J. C. Spain, 1998. Evolution of a pathway for chlorobenzene metabolism leads to natural attenuation in contaminated groundwater. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64(11): 4185–4193.
Viarengo, A., R. Accomando, I. Ferrando, F. Beltrame, M. Fato & G. Marcenaro, 1996. Heavy metal effects on cytosolic free Ca-2+ level in the marine protozoan Euplotes crassus evaluated by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Endocrinol. 113(2): 161–168.
Walia, S., A. Khan & N. Rosenthal, 1990. Construction and applications of DNA probes for detection of polychlorinated biphenyl-degrading genotypes in toxic organic-ontaminated soil environments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56(1): 254–259.
Warner-Bartnicki, A. L. & R. V. Miller, 1992. Characterization of the stress-responsive behavior in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO: isolation of the Tn3-lacZYA fusions with novel damage-inducible (din) promoters. J. Bacteriol. 174(6): 1862–1868.
Weichart, D. & S. Kjelleberg, 1996. Stress resistance and recovery potential of culturable and viable but nonculturable cells of Vibrio vulnificus. Microbiol. 142(4): 845–853.
Wilson, M. S., C. Bakermans & E. L. Madsen, 1999. In situ, real-time catabolic gene expression: Extraction and characterization of naphthalene dioxygenase mRNA transcripts from groundwater. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65(1): 80–87.
Yakimov, M. M., P. N. Golyshin, S. Lang, E. R. Moore, W. R. Abraham, H. Lunsdorf & K. N. Timmis, 1998. Alcanivorax borkumensis gen. nov., sp. nov., a new, hydrocarbon-degrading and surfactant-producing marine bacterium. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 48(2): 339–348.
Young, L. L., D. Abramowicz, M. Alexander, R. Arnold, S. Aust, J. Hunt, J. Shann, W. Suk & J. Tiedje, 1995. Biodegradation: Its role in reducing toxicity and exposure to environmental contaminants. Environ. Health Perspect. 103(5): 129 pp.
Ysern, P., B. Clerch, M. Castano, I. Gilbert, J. Barbe & M. Lagostera, 1990. Induction of SOS genes in Escherichia coli and mutagenesis in Salmonella typhimurium by fluoroquinolones. Mutagenesis 5(1): 63-66.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ford, T.E. Response of marine microbial communities to anthropogenic stress. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Stress and Recovery 7, 75–89 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009971414055
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009971414055