Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Insecticide Resistance in the Western Flower Thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis

  • Published:
Integrated Pest Management Reviews

Abstract

The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) is a serious pest on a wide range of crops throughout the world. F. occidentalis is difficult to control with insecticides because of its thigmokinetic behaviour and resistance to insecticides. Pesticide resistance can have a negative impact on integrated pest management programmes with chemical control as one of the components. Resistance to a number of different insecticides has been shown in many populations of F. occidentalis. This flower thrips has the potential of fast development of resistance owing to the short generation time, high fecundity, and a haplodiploid breeding system. The mechanisms conferring insecticide resistance in insects can be divided into four levels. First, an altered behaviour can aid the insect to avoid coming into contact with the insecticide. Second, a delayed penetration through the integument will reduce the effect of the insecticide at the target site. Third, inside the insect, detoxification enzymes may metabolise and thereby inactivate the insecticide. Fourth, the last level of resistance mechanisms is alterations at the target site for the insecticide. Knowledge of resistance mechanisms can give information and tools to be used in management of the resistance problem. Recently, studies have been carried out to investigate the underlying mechanisms conferring resistance in F. occidentalis. It appears that resistance in F. occidentalis is polyfactorial; different mechanisms can confer resistance in different populations and different mechanisms may coexist in the same population. Possible resistance mechanisms in F. occidentalis include: reduced penetration, detoxification by P450-monooxygenases, esterases and glutathione S-transferases, and alterations of acetylcholinesterase, the target site for organophosphate and carbamate insecticides. Target site resistance to pyrethroids (knockdown resistance) may also be a resistance mechanism in F. occidentalis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References cited

  • Agosin, M. (1985) Role of microsomal oxidations in insecticide degradation. In G.A. Kerkut and L.I. Gilbert (eds) Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology, Vol. 12, pp. 647–712. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous (1999) Oversigt over godkendte bekæmpelsesmidler 1999. Miljøstyrelsen (Danish Environmental Protection Agency), Copenhagen, Denmark.

  • Bloomquist, J.R. (1996) Ion channels as targets for insecticides. Annual Review of Entomology 41, 163–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourguet, D., Raymond, M., Berrada, S. and Fournier, D. (1997) Interaction between acetylcholinesterase and choline acetyltransferase: an hypothesis to explain unusual toxicological responses. Pesticide Science 51, 276–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broadbent, A.B. and Pree, D.J. (1997) Resistance to insecticides in populations of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) from greenhouses in the Niagara region of Ontario. Canadian Entomologist 129, 907–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T.M. and Brogdon, W.G. (1987) Improved detection of insecticide resistance through conventional and molecular techniques. Annual Review of Entomology 32, 145–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brødsgaard, H.F. (1989) Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)-a new pest in Danish glasshouses. A review. Tidsskrift for Planteavl 93, 83–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brødsgaard, H.F. (1993) Cold hardiness and tolerance to submergence inwater in Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Environmental Entomology 22, 647–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brødsgaard, H.F. (1994) Insecticide resistance in European and African strains of western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) tested in a new residue-on-glass test. Journal of Economic Entomology 87, 1141–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Busvine, J.R. (1951) Mechanism of resistance to insecticides in houseflies. Nature 168, 193–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, F.J. and Devonshire, A.L. (1997) Kinetics of insensitive acetylcholinesterases in organophosphate-resistant tobacco whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 58, 119–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casida, J.E. (1970) Mixed-function oxidase involvement in the biochemistry of insecticide synergists. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 18, 753–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casida, J.E. (1993) Insecticide action at the GABA-gated chloride channel: recognition, progress, and prospects. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 22, 13–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A.G. (1989) The comparative enzymology of the glutathione S-transferases from non-vertebrate organisms. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 92B, 419–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, J.M., Zhang, A., Dunn, J. and Yoon, K. (1999) Molecular detection of insecticide resistant alleles. Pesticide Science 55, 606–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dauterman, W.C. (1983) Role of hydrolases and glutathione S-transferases in insecticide resistance. In G.P. Georghiou and T. Saito(eds) Pest resistance to pesticides, pp. 229–47. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dauterman, W.C. (1985) Insect metabolism: extramicrosomal. In G.A. Kerkut and L.I. Gilbert (eds) Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology, Vol. 12, pp. 713–30. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denholm, I., Cahill, M., Dennehy, T.J. and Horowitz, A.R. (1998) Challenges with managing insecticide resistance in agricultural pests, exemplified by the whitefly, Bemisia tabaci. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 353, 1757–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denholm, I. and Jespersen, J.B. (1998) Insecticide resistance management in Europe: recent developments and prospects. Pesticide Science 52, 193–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Devonshire, A.L. (1977) The properties of a carboxylesterase from the peach-potato aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulz.), and its role in conferring insecticide resistance. Biochemical Journal 167, 675–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Devonshire, A.L. and Moores, G.D. (1982) A carboxylesterase with broad substrate specificity causes organophosphorus, carbamate and pyrethroid resistance in peach-potato aphids (Myzus persicae). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 18, 235–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eger, J.E., Stavisky, J. and Funderburk, J.E. (1998) Comparative toxicity of spinosad to Frankliniella spp. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), with notes on a bioassay technique. Florida Entomologist 81, 547–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eldefrawi, A.T. (1985) Acetylcholinesterases and anticholinesterases. In G.A. Kerkut and L.I. Gilbert (eds) Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology, Vol. 12, pp. 115–30. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feyereisen, R. (1999) Insect P450 enzymes. Annual Review of Entomology 44, 507–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fournier, D. and Mutero, A. (1994) Modification of acetylcholinesterase as a mechanism of resistance to insecticides. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 108C, 19–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Georghiou, G.P. (1990) Overview of insecticide resistance. In M.B. Green, H.M. LeBaron and W.K. Moberg (eds) Managing resistance to agrochemicals: from fundamental research to practical strategies, pp. 18–41. American Chemical Society, Washington DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hama, H. (1983) Resistance to insecticides due to reduced sensitivity of acetylcholinesterase. In G.P. Georghiou and T. Saito (eds) Pest resistance to pesticides, pp. 299–331. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heming, B.S. (1995) History of the germ line in male and female thrips. In B.L. Parker, M. Skinner and T. Lewis (eds) Thrips biology and management, pp. 505–35. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodgson, E. (1985) Microsomal monooxygenases. In G.A. Kerkut and L.I. Gilbert (eds) Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology, Vol. 11, pp. 225–321. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodgson, E. and Kulkarni, A.P. (1983) Characterization of cytochrome P450 in studies of insecticide resistance. In G.P. Georghiou and T. Saito (eds) Pest resistance to pesticides, pp. 207–28. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Immaraju, J.A., Paine, T.D., Bethke, J.A., Robb, K.L. and Newman, J.P. (1992) Western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) resistance to insecticides in coastal California greenhouses. Journal of Economic Entomology 85, 9–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, R.J. (1997) Integrated pest management (IPM) in glasshouses. In T. Lewis (ed) Thrips as crop pests, pp. 639–66. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jakoby, W.B. and Habig, W.H. (1980) Glutathione transferases. In W.B. Jakoby(ed) Enzymatic basis of detoxication, Vol. 2, pp. 63–94. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, K.F., Jørgensen, L.N., Nielsen, B.J., Paaske, K., Rasmussen, A.N., Hansen, L.M., Jensen, P.E., Christensen, J. and Kristensen, K.J. (1999) Fungicides, insecticides, herbicides and growth regulators approved in 1998 for agricultural purposes and fruit growing. In Proceedings 16th Danish Plant Protection Conference, 2–3 March 1999, Nyborg, Denmark. DJF rapport No. 10, pp. 7–15. Foulum, Denmark: Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, S.E. (1997) Detection of insecticide resistance with biochemical methods. In Proceedings 14th Danish Plant Protection Conference, 4–5 March 1997, Nyborg, Denmark. SP rapport No. 8, pp. 159–67. Foulum, Denmark: Danish Institute of Plant and Soil Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, S.E. (1998) Acetylcholinesterase activity associated with methiocarb resistance in a strain of western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 61, 191–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, S.E. (2000) Mechanisms associated with methiocarb resistance in Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 93, 464–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keserü, G.M., Kolossváry, I. and Bertók, B. (1999) Piperonyl butoxide-mediated inhibition of cytochrome P450–catalysed insecticide metabolism: a rational approach. Pesticide Science 55, 1004–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kontsedalov, S., Weintraub, P.G., Horowitz, A.R. and Ishaaya, I. (1998) Effects of insecticides on immature and adult western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in Israel. Journal of Economic Entomology 91, 1067–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, T. (1998) Pest thrips in perspective. In Proceedings The 1998 Brighton Conference - Pest and Diseases, No. 2, 16–19 November 1998, Brighton, UK, pp. 385–90. Farnham, UK: British Crop Protection Council.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu,W., Zhao, G. and Knowles, C.O. (1994) Substrate specificity and inhibitor sensitivity of cholinesterases in homogenates of western flower thrips. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 49, 121–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez-Torres, D., Chandre, F., Williamson, M.S., Darriet, F., Berge, J.B., Devonshire, A.L., Guillet, P., Pasteur, N. and Pauron, D. (1998) Molecular characterization of pyrethroid knockdown resistance (kdr) in the major malaria vector Anopheles gambiae s.s. Insect Molecular Biology 7, 179–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez-Torres, D., Chevillon, C., Brun-Barale, A., Berge, J.B., Pasteur, N. and Pauron, D. (1999a) Voltage-dependent NaC channels in pyrethroid-resistant Culex pipiens L mosquitoes. Pesticide Science 55, 1012–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez-Torres, D., Foster, S.P., Field, L.M., Devonshire, A.L. and Williamson, M.S. (1999b) A sodium channel point mutation is associated with resistance to DDT and pyrethroid insecticides in the peach-potato aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Insect Molecular Biology 8, 339–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moritz, G. (1997) Stucture, growth and development. In T. Lewis(ed) Thrips as crop pests, pp. 15–63. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mutero, A., Pralavorio, M., Bride, J.-M. and Fournier, D. (1994) Resistance-associated point mutations in insecticide-insensitive acetylcholinesterase. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 91, 5922–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Narahashi, T. (1992) Nerve membrane NaC channels as targets of insecticides. Trends in Pharmacological Science 13, 236–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Narahashi, T. (1996) Neuronal ion channels as the target sites of insecticides. Pharmacology and Toxicology 79, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oppenoorth, F.J. (1985) Biochemistry and genetics of insecticide resistance. In G.A.Kerkut and L.I. Gilbert (eds) Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology, Vol. 12, pp. 731–73. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, B.L. and Skinner, M. (1997) Integrated pest management (IPM) in tree crops. In T. Lewis (ed) Thrips as crop pests, pp. 615–38. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parrella, M.P. and Lewis, T. (1997) Integrated pest management (IPM) in field crops. In T. Lewis (ed) Thrips as crop pests, pp. 595–614. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plapp, Jr., F.W. (1984) The genetic basis of insecticide resistance in the house fly: evidence that a single locus plays a major role in metabolic resistance to insecticides. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 22, 194–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, N.R. (1991) Insect resistance to insecticides: mechanisms and diagnosis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 100C, 319–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Race, S.R. (1961) Early-season thrips control on cotton in New Mexico. Journal of Economic Entomology 54, 974–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raffa, K.F. and Priester, T.M. (1985) Synergists as research tools and control agents in agriculture. Journal of Agricultural Entomology 2, 27–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, O.W. and Davies, R.G. (1978) Imms’ Outlines of Entomology, London: Chapman and Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robb, K.L. (1989) Analysis of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) as a pest of floricultural crops in California greenhouses. Ph.D. dissertation. University of California, Riverside.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robb, K.L., Newman, J., Virzi, J.K. and Parrella, M.P. (1995) Insecticide resistance in western flower thrips. In B.L. Parker, M. Skinner and T. Lewis (eds) Thrips biology and management, pp. 341–46. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robb, K.L. and Parrella, M.P. (1987) Western flower thrips in California floriculture greenhouses. Typescript, 10 pp. University of California, Riverside.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robb, K.L. and Parrella, M.P. (1995) IPM of western flower thrips. In B.L. Parker, M. Skinner and T. Lewis (eds) Thrips biology and management, pp. 365–70. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roush, R.T. and Daly, J.C. (1990) The role of population genetics in resistance research and management. In R.T. Roush and B.E. Tabashnik (eds) Pesticide resistance in arthropods, pp. 97–152. New York: Chapman and Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sattelle, D.B. (1985) Acetylcholine receptors. In G.A. Kerkut and L.I. Gilbert (eds) Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology, Vol. 11, pp. 395–434. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sattelle, D.B. (1990) GABA receptors of insects. Advances in Insect Physiology 22, 1–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sattelle, D.B. and Yamamoto, D. (1988) Molecular targets of pyrethroid insecticides. Advances in Insect Physiology 20, 147–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuler, T.H., Martinez-Torres, D., Thompson, A.J., Denholm, I., Devonshire, A.L., Duce, I.R. and Williamson, M.S. (1998) Toxicological, electrophysiological, and molecular characterisation of knockdown resistance to pyrethroid insecticides in the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 59, 169–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J.G. (1990) Investigating mechanisms of insecticide resistance: methods, strategies, and pitfalls. In R.T. Roush and B.E. Tabashnik(eds) Pesticide resistance in arthropods, pp. 39–57. New York: Chapman and Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J.G. (1998) Toxicity of spinosad to susceptible and resistant strains of house flies,Musca domestica. Pesticide Science 54, 131–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J.G. and Dong, K. (1994) kdr-Type resistance in insects with special reference to the German cockroach, Blattella germanica. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 109B, 191–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soderland, D.M. and Bloomquist, J.R. (1989) Neurotoxic actions of pyrethroid insecticides. Annual Review of Entomology 34, 77–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soderland, D.M. and Bloomquist, J.R. (1990) Molecular mechanisms of insecticide resistance. In R.T. Roush and B.E. Tabashnik (eds) Pesticide resistance in arthropods, pp. 58–96. New York: Chapman and Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soderland, D.M. and Knipple, D.C. (1999) Knockdown resistance to DDT and pyrethroids in the house fly (Diptera: Muscidae): from genetic trait to molecular mechanism. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 92, 909–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sparks, T.C., Lockwood, J.A., Byford, R.L., Graves, J.B. and Leonard, B.R. (1989) The role of behavior in insecticide resistance. Pesticide Science 26, 383–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tommasini, M.G. and Maini, S. (1995) Frankliniella occidentalis and other thrips harmful to vegetable and ornamental crops in Europe. In A.J.M. Loomans, J.C. van Lenteren, M.G. Tommasini, S. Maini and J. Riudavets (eds) Biological control of thrips pests, pp. 1–42. Wageningen: Wageningen Agricultural University Papers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toutant, J.-P. (1989) Insect acetylcholinesterase: catalytic properties, tissue distribution and molecular forms. Progress in Neurobiology 32, 423–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trumble, J.T. (1998) IPM: overcoming conflicts in adoption. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 3, 195–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, C.H. and Thompson, H.M. (1991) Phylogenetic distribution of cholinesterases and related esterases. In P. Mineau (ed) Cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides: their impact on wildlife and the environment, pp. 1–17. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wijkamp, I., Almarza, N., Goldbach, R. and Peters, D. (1995) Distinct levels of specificity in thrips transmission of Tospoviruses. Phytopathology 85, 1069–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wijkamp, I., Goldbach, R. and Peters, D. (1996) Propagation of tomato spotted wilt virus in Frankliniella occidentalis does neither results in pathological effects nor in transovarial passage of the virus. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 81, 285–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, C.F. (1983) Role of mixed-function oxidases in insecticide resistance. In G.P. Georghiou and T. Saito(eds) Pest resistance to pesticides, pp. 175–206. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, A., Dunn, J.B. and Clark, J.M. (1999) An efficient strategy for validation of a point mutation associated with acetylcholinesterase sensitivity to azinphosmethyl in Colorado potato beetle. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 65, 25–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, G., Liu, W., Brown, J.M. and Knowles, C.O. (1995a) Insecticide resistance in field and laboratory strains of western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 88, 1164–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, G., Liu, W. and Knowles, C.O. (1994) Mechanisms associated with diazinon resistance in western flower thrips. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 49, 13–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, G., Liu, W. and Knowles, C.O. (1995b) Mechanisms conferring resistance of western flow thrips to bendiocarb. Pesticide Science 44, 293–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, G., Liu, W. and Knowles, C.O. (1995c) Fenvalerate resistance mechanisms in western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 88, 531–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, K.Y. and Clark, J.M. (1997) Validation of a point mutation of acetylcholinesterase in Colorado potato beetle by polymerase chain reaction coupled to enzyme inhibition assay. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 57, 28–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, K.Y., Lee, S.H. and Clark, J.M. (1996) A point mutation of acetylcholinesterase associated with azinphosmethyl resistance and reduced fitness in Colorado potato beetle. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 55, 100–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zlotkin, E. (1999) The insect voltage-gated sodium channel as target of insecticides. Annual Review of Entomology 44, 429–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zubay, G.L. (1983) Biochemistry. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Sten E. Jensen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Jensen, S.E. Insecticide Resistance in the Western Flower Thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 5, 131–146 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009600426262

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009600426262

Keywords

Search

Navigation