Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Adult Foreign Adoptees: Reactive Attachment Disorder May Grow into Psychic Homelessness

  • Published:
Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless

Abstract

The heterogeneity of the group of adopted children does not allow to draw general conclusions about the nature and quantity of behavioral problems with adopted children. This nature and quantity depend on the chosen comparison group. Older foreign adoptees at placement often show complex physical and psychological problems. Many suffer from some kind of behavioral disturbances. Empirical data show that reactive attachment disorder (RAD) can often be diagnosed. The continuation of this disorder in adulthood will result in feelings of psychic homelessness. Examples are described to make clear what kind of behavioral problem it concerns. Research to select appropriate treatments for RAD and psychic homelessness is still lacking.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1983). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and revised child behavior profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adoption Center. (1998). Most important countries for intercountry adoptions in the Netherlands, 1970¶ 1997. Utrecht: Adoptie Centrum.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1995). Diagnostische criteria van de DSM-IV. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, R. S. (1989). The nature of adoptee search: Adventure, cure, or growth? Child Welfare, 68,____.

  • Archer, C. (1996). Attachment disordered children. In R. Philips & E. McWilliam (Eds.), After adoption. Working with adoptive families (pp. 55–65). London: British Agency for Adoption and Fostering.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bharat, S. (1997). Intellectual and psychosocial development of adopted children. Mumbai: Tata Institute Social Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bohman, M. (1970). Adopted children and their families. Stockholm: Proprius.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bohman, M., & Sigvardsson, S. (1990). Outcome in adoption: Lessons from longitudinal studies. In D. Brodzinsky & M. Schechter (Eds.), The psychology of adoption. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1969, 1973, 1980). Attachment and loss, Vol. I, II, III. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1983). Verbondenheid. Deventer: Van Loghum Slaterus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodzinsky, D. M., & M. D. Schechter (Eds.). (1990). The psychology of adoption. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodzinsky, D. M., Schechter, M. D., & Henig, R. M. (1992). Being adopted. The lifelong search for self. New York: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brodzinsky, D. M., Smith, W. D., & Brodzinsky, A. B. (1998). Children's adjustment to adoption. Developmental and clinical issues. London: SAGE Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colin, V. L. (1996). Human attachment. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egmond, G. van (1987). Bodemloos bestaan. Problemen met adoptiekinderen. Baarn: AMBO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Federici, R. S. (1998). Help for the hopeless child. A guide for families. With special discussion for assessing and treating the post-institutionalized child. Washington: Federici and Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feigelman, W., Barth, R., & Brooks, D. (1997). Comparing the adjustments of transracially adopted young adults with their interracially adopted peers. New York: Nassau Community College.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finley, G. E. (1999). Children of adoptive families. In W. K. Silverman & T. H. Ollendick (Eds.), Developmental issues in the clinical treatment of children and adolescents (pp. 358–370). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geerars, H., ‘t Hart, H., & Hoksbergen, R. A. C. (1991). Waar ben ik thuis. Geadopteerde adolescenten over adoptie, hun familie, problemen, uithuisplaatsing en toekomstvisie. Utrecht: Adoption Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstone, C. (1999). Come to the window. Life with Daniela· our child from Romania. The story of a post-institutionalized child. Euclid, OH: William Custom Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodfriend, M. S. (1993). Experience and reason briefly recorded. Treatment of attachment disorder of infancy in a neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatrics, 91, 139–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, D. A. (1993). Here today, gone tomorrow: An investigation of the factors that impact adoption disruption. Ann Arbor MI: UMI dissertation services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grasvelt, C. (1989). Justo, een gekwetst kind. Ervaringen van een moeder met een ernstig verwaarloosd adoptiekind. Haarlem: De Toorts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grotevant, H., & McRoy, R. (1990). Adopted adolescents in residential treatment: The role of the family. In D. M. Brodzinsky & M. D. Schechter (Eds.), The psychology of adoption. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groza, V. (1998). Adopted children from Rumania: Special focus on Roma (gypsy) children. International Journal of Child & Family Welfare, 1, 6–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haugaard, J. J. (1998). Is adoption a risk factor for the development of adjustment problems? Clinical Psychological Review, 18, 47–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hersov, L. (1994). Adoption. In M. Rutter, E. Taylor, & L. Hersov (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychiatry, modern approaches (pp. 267–282). Oxford/London: Blackwell Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoksbergen R. A. C. (1996). Child adoption. A guidebook for adoptive parents and their advisors. London and Bristol: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoksbergen, R. A. C. (1997). Turmoil for adoptees during their adolescence? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20, 33–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoksbergen, R. A. C. (1998). Reactieve hechtingsstoornis bij adoptiekinderen. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Opvoeding, Vorming en Onderwijs, 14, 303–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoksbergen, R. A. C. (2000). The importance of adoption for nurturing and enhancing the emotional and intellectual potential of children. Adoption Quarterly, 4 (in press).

  • Hoksbergen, R. A. C., Baarda, B., Bunjes, L. A., & Nota, J. C. (Eds.). (1979). Adoptie van kinderen uit verre landen. Deventer: Van Loghum Slaterus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoksbergen, R. A. C., & Bakker-van Zeil, T. (1983). Adoptiekinderen bij medisch opvoedkundige bureaus en jeugd psychiatrische diensten. In R. Hoksbergen & H. Walenkamp (Eds.), Adoptie uit de kinderschoenen (pp. 223–241). Deventer: Van Loghum Slaterus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoksbergen, R. A. C., Juffer, F. A., & Waardenburg, B. (1987). Adoptive children at home and at school. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoksbergen, R. A. C., & Loenen, A. (1985). Adoptie en attachment· Over hechtingsproblemen bij buitenlandse adoptiekinderen. Kind & Adolescent, 6, 71–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoksbergen, R. A. C., Spaan, J. J. T. M., & Waardenburg, B. C. (1988). Bittere ervaringen: Uithuisplaatsing van buitenlandse adoptiekinderen. Utrecht: Adoptie Centrum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howe, D. (1995). Adoption and attachment. Adoption and Fostering, 19, 7–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howe, D. (1998). Adoption outcome research and practical judgment. Adoption & Fostering, 22, 6–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, D. A. (1997). Facilitating developmental attachment. The road to emotional recovery and behavioral change in foster and adopted children. London: Jason Aronson Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • ICODOINFO. (1992). Themanummer: Joodse onderduikkinderen van toen. Utrecht: Stichting ICODO, 9, 92–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenista, J. A., & Chapman, D. (1987). Medical problems of foreign-born adopted children. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 141, 298–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jewett, C. L. (1982). Helping children cope with separation and loss. Harvard, Mass: The Harvard Common Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D., & Fein, E. (1991). The concept of attachment: Applications to adoption. Children and Youth Services Review, 13, 397–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D. E., Miller, L. C., Iverson, S., Thomas, W., Franchino, B., Dole, K., Kiernan, Marybeth, T., Kiernann, O., Georgieff, M. K., & Hostetter, M. K. (1992). The health of children adopted from Romania. Journal of the American Medical Association, 23/30, 268, 3446–3451.

  • Juffer, F. A., Rosenboom, L., Hoksbergen, R. A. C., Riksen-Walraven, M., & Kohnstamm, G. A. (1995). Attachment and intervention in adoptive families with and without biological children. In W. Koops, J. B. Hoeksma, & D. V. Van den Boom (Eds.), Development of interaction and attachment: Traditional and non-traditional approaches. Amsterdam/New York: North-Holland.

  • Karen, R. (1998). Becoming attached: First relationships and how they shape our capacity to love. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keck, G. C., & Kupecky, R. M. (1995). Adopting the hurt child. Colorado Springs: Piñon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keilson, H. (1979). Sequentielle traumatisierung bei kindern. Deskriptiv-klinische und quantifizierendstatistische follow-up untersuchung zum schicksal der j¨udischen kriegswaisen in den Niederlanden. Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, S. (1992). Huis voor thuislozen. Den Haag: Kessler Stichting.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, P. S. (1980). Behavior symptoms in three transracially adopted Asian children: Diagnosis Dilemma. Child Welfare, 59, 213–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krech, D., Crutchfield, R. S., & Ballachey, E. L. (1962). Individual in society. A textbook of social psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill and Chuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, A., & Pawl, J. (1988). Clinical applications of attachment theory. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lifton, B. J. (1975). Twice born: Memoirs of an adopted daughter. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lifton, B. J. (1979). Lost and found: The adoption experience. New York: Dial Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lifton, B. J. (1994). Journey of the adopted self. A quest for wholeness. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minister of Justice. (1993¶ 1999). Statistische gegevens betreffende de opneming in gezinnen van buitenlandse adoptiekinderen in de jaren 1992¶ 1999. Den Haag: Ministerie van Justitie.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minnis, H., Ramsay, R., & Campbell, L. (1996). Reactive attachment disorder: Usefulness of a new clinical category. Journal of Nervous Mental Disorders, 184, 440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, J., & Fombonne, E. (1999). Psychopathology in adopted and non-adopted children: A clinical sample. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69, 403–409.

    Google Scholar 

  • NRC. (11-9-1999). Adoptieonderzoek: Beter milieu verhoogt laag IQ met 14 punten. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 20 July 1999.

  • Pauw de, A. (1997). Evaluatie van interculturele en interraciale adoptie in vlaanderen. Leuven: Onderzoekscentrum Mens, Maatschappij en Marginaliteit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, B. (1995). Maltreated children: Experience, brain development and the next generation. New York: W.W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • PPIAS, Parents to Parent Information on Adoption Services. (1994). A resource pack for professionals supporting families who have a child with an attachment disorder. Derbey: Bookstall Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richters, M. M., & Volkmar, F. R. (1994). Reactive attachment disorder of infancy or early childhood. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 328–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1972). Maternal deprivation reassessed. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., and the English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) study team. (1998). Developmental catchup, and deficit, following adoption after severe global early privation. Journal of Child Psychology Psychiatry, 39, 465–476.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, S. (1995). Adoption and ordinal position. Adoption and Fostering, 19, 21–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schore, A. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of the self. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorgedrager, N. (1988). Oriënterend medisch onderzoek en groeistudie van buitenlandse adoptiekinderen. Haren: Cicero.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorosky, A., Baran, A., & Pannor, R. (1975). Identity conflicts in adoptees. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 45, 18–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speltz, M. (1990). The treatment of preschool conduct problems: An integration of behavioral and attachments concepts. In M. T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years (pp. 399–426). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storm, M. (1985). Het drama van de mislukte adoptie. De Tijd, 10 Januari.

  • Storsbergen, H. E. (1995). Geadopteerd zijn is ::: In R. A. C. Hoksbergen, H. E. Storsbergen, & C. Brouwer-van Dalen. Het begon in Griekenland. Een verkenning van de achtergrond van in Griekenland geboren, geadopteerde jongvolwassenen en de betekenis van de adoptiestatus. Utrecht: Adoptie Centrum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tahk, Y. T. (1986). “Intercountry adoption program in Korea.” In R. A. C. Hoksbergen & S. D. Gokhale (Eds.), Adoption in worldwide perspective. A review of programs, policies and legislation in 14 countries. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger B.V.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tavecchio, L.W. C. (1991). Affectieve verwaarlozing en thuisloosheid. Een haalbaarheidsstudie naar thuisloosheid vanuit het perspectief van de gehechtheidstheorie. Leiden: Vakgroep Algemene Pedagogiek.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terr, L. C. (1991). Childhood traumas: an outline and overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 10–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tizard, B., & Hodges, J. (1977). The effect of early institutional rearing on the development of eight year old children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 19, 99–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Triseliotis, J., Shireman, J., & Hundleby, M. (1997). Adoption: Theory, policy and practice. London: Cassell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhulst, F. C. (1985). Mental health in Dutch children, an epidemiological study. Meppel: Kris Repro.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhulst, F. C., & Versluis-den Bieman, H. J. M. (1989). Vaardigheden en probleemgedrag. Assen/ Maastricht: Van Gorcum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verrier, N. N. (1993). The primal wound. Baltimore: Gateway Press, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Versluis-den Bieman, H. (1994). Interlandelijk geadopteerden in de adolescentie. Vervolgonderzoek naar gedragsproblemen en vaardigheden. Rotterdam: University of Rotterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, S. B. (1992). Lower threshold for referral for psychiatric treatment for adopted adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 31, 512–527.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welch, M. G. (1988). Holding time. New York: Fireside.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wierzbicki, M. (1993). Psychological adjustment of adoptees: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 447–454. Request for support grant. Western Australia: University of Western Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolters, W. (1989). Uithuisplaatsing van buitenlandse adoptiekinderen: te vroeg of te laat? In R. A. C. Hoksbergen & W. Wolters (Eds.), Verstoorde Relaties, adoptie en hulpverlening. Baarn: AMBO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. D. (1993). Downward mobility in contemporary American society. “Address unknown: Homelessness in Contemporary America.” In Bill Feigelman (Ed.), Sociology full circle: Contemporary readings on society. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanvich College Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrobel, J. (1991). Story-making/story-telling als therapeutisch middel bij problematische adoptiekinderen. Tijdschrift voor creatieve therapie 91, 95–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ijzendoorn, M. H. van (1988). De ontwikkeling van gehechtheidsrelaties: determinanten en effecten. In W. Koops & J. J. van derWerff (Eds.), Overzicht van de empirische ontwikkelingspsychologie, deel 3: Sociale ontwikkeling en de ontwikkeling van de persoonlijkheid. Groningen: Wolters Noordhoff.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeanah, C. H., & Emde, R. N. (1994). Attachment disorders in infancy and childhood. In M. Rutter, E. Taylor, & L. Hersov (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychiatry· modern approaches (pp. 490–504). Oxford/London: Blackwell Science.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Utrecht University, Hartmanlaan 20, 3768 XH, Soest, The Netherlands

    René Hoksbergen

  2. Netherlands

    Jan ter Laak

Authors
  1. René Hoksbergen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jan ter Laak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hoksbergen, R., Laak, J.t. Adult Foreign Adoptees: Reactive Attachment Disorder May Grow into Psychic Homelessness. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless 9, 291–308 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009441810181

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009441810181

Search

Navigation