Abstract
Growth, progression, and metastasis of breast cancer, as well as of most of the other tumors, are angiogenesis-dependent processes.
Several pro-angiogenic growth factors and endogenous inhibitors of angiogenesis have been identified and sequenced, and experimental studies suggest that angiogenic activity of a tumor may result from down-regulation of inhibitors of angiogenesis or up-regulation of endothelial growth factors. The mechanisms leading to the alteration of the balance between positive and negative modulators of angiogenesis are only partially known.
We are at the beginning of research to identify the more active angiogenic factors in human breast cancer, and little information is presently available on their clinical significance. Preliminary results suggest that among the known angiogenic peptides, both vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor / thymidine phosphorylase (PD-ECGF/TP) have promising prognostic and, perhaps, predictive value.
No data are available on the clinical value of co-determination of positive and negative regulators of angiogenesis to look at the angiogenic balance of each single tumor. Only a few studies have assessed the role of endogenous inhibitors of angiogenesis in human breast cancer, with results available only on thrombospondin-1 and -2 (TSP-1, -2).
Finally, the determination of some integrins such as α6 and αvβ3 and of some other endothelial-adhesion molecules seems to be of potential prognostic value.
Recognizing which are the more biologically active positive and negative angiogenic factors is the key for the identification not only of new prognostic markers but also of targets for antiangiogenic therapy in human breast cancer.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Folkman J: What is the evidence that tumors are angiogenesis dependent? J Natl Cancer Inst 82:4-6, 1989
Folkman J: Angiogenesis in cancer, vascular, rheumatoid and other disease. Nature Med 1:27-31, 1995
Risau W: Mechanisms of angiogenesis. Nature 386:671-674, 1997
Asahara T, Murohara T, Sullivan A, Silver M, van der Zee R, Li T, Witzenbichler B, Schatteman G, Isner JM: Isolation of putative progenitor endothelial cells for angiogenesis. Science 275:964-967, 1997
Hunt BJ, Jurd KM: Endothelial cell activation. A central pathophysiological process. Br Med J 316:1328-1329, 1998
Folkman J: Clinical applications of research on angiogenesis. New Engl J Med 333:1757-1763, 1995
Folkman J: How is blood vessel growth regulated in normal and neoplastic tissue? — GHA Clowes Memorial Award Lecture. Cancer Res 46:467-473, 1986
Hanahan D, Folkman J: Patterns of emerging mechanisms of the angiogenic switch during tumorigenesis. Cell 86:353-364, 1996
Kerbel RS: Commentaries on tumor angiogenesis: an introduction. Cancer Metastasis Rev 15:145-147, 1996
Marx J: Cellular changes on the route to metastasis. Science 259:626-629, 1993
Strömblad S, Becker JC, Yebra M, Brooks PC, Cheresh DA: Suppression of p53 activity and p21WAF1/CIP1 expression by vascular cell integrin αvβ3 during angiogenesis. J Clin Invest 98:426-433, 1996
Gasparini G, Harris AL: p53 and angiogenesis in neoplasia. In: Klijn JGM (ed) Prognostic and Predictive Value of p53. Elsevier Science BV, London, 1997, pp 115-130
Rak J, Filmus J, Finkenzeller G, Grugel S, Marmé D, Kerbel RS: Oncogenes as inducers of tumor angiogenesis. Cancer Metastasis Rev 14:263-277, 1995
Brooks PC, Clark RAF, Cheresh DA: Requirement of vascular αvβ3 for angiogenesis. Science 264:569-571, 1994
Marshall JF, Hart IR: The role of αv-integrins in tumor progression and metastasis. Sem Cancer Biol 7:129-138, 1996
Polunovsky VA, Wendt CH, Ingbar DH, Peterson MS, Bitterman PB: Induction of endothelial cell apoptosis by TNFα: Modulation by inhibitors of protein synthesis. Exp Cell Res 214:548-594, 1994
Wojnowski L, Zimmer AM, Beck TW, Hahn H, Bernal R, Rapp UR, Zimmer A: Endothelial apoptosis in braf-deficient mice. Nature Genetics 16:293-297, 1997
O'Reilly MS, Holmgren L, Chen C, Folkman J: Angiostatin induces and sustains dormancy of human primary tumors. Nature Med 2:689-692, 1996
O'Reilly MS, Boehm T, Shing Y, Fukai N, Vasios G, Lane WS, Flynn E, Birkhead JR, Olsen BR, Folkman J: Endostatin: an endogenous inhibitor of angiogenesis and tumor growth. Cell 88:277-285, 1997
Melder RJ, Koerig GC, Witner BP, et al: During angiogenesis, vascular endothelial growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor regulate natural killer cell adhesion to tumor endothelium. Nature Med 2:992-997, 1996
Ferrara N: Natural killer cells, adhesion and tumor angiogenesis. Nature Med 2:971-972, 1996
Gabrilovich DL, Chen HL, Girgis KR, et al: Production of vascular endothelial growth factor by human tumors inhibits the functional maturation of dendritic cells. Nature Med 2:1096-1103, 1996
Adams DH, Yannelli JR, Newman W, et al: Adhesion of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes to endothelium: a phenotypic and functional analysis. Br J Cancer 75:1421-1431, 1997
Terman BI, Dougher-Vermazen M: Biological properties of VEGF/VPF receptors. Cancer Metastasis Rev 15:159-163, 1996
Dvorak HF, Brown LF, Detmar M, Dvorak AM: Vascular permeability factor/vascular endothelial growth factor, microvascular hyperpermeability, and angiogenesis. Am J Pathol 146:1029-1039, 1995
Kieser A, Wiech HA, Brandner G, Marmé D, Kolch W: Mutant p53 potentiates protein kinase C induction of vascular endothelial growth factor expression. Oncogene 9:963-969, 1994
Hyder SM, Murthy L, Stancel GM: Progestin regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor in human breast cancer cells. Cancer Res 58:392-395, 1998
Nicosia RF: What is the role of vascular endothelial growth factor-related molecules in the tumor angiogenesis? Am J Pathol 153:11-16, 1998
Salven P, Lymboussaki A, Heikkilä P, Jääskela-Saari H, Enholm B, Aase K, Von Euler G, Eriksson U, Alitalo K, Joensuu K: Vascular endothelial growth factors VEGF-B and VEGF-C are expressed in human tumors. Am J Pathol 153:103-108, 1998
Guidi AJ, Schnitt SJ, Fischer L, Tognazzi K, Harris JR, Dvorak HF, Brown LF: Vascular permeability factor (vascular endothelial growth factor) expression and angiogenesis in patients with ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast. Cancer 80:1945-1953, 1997
Toi M, Insada K, Hoshina S, Suzuki H, Kondo S, Tominaga T: Vascular endothelial growth factor and platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor are frequently coexpressed in highly vascularized human breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res 1:961-964, 1995
Anan K, Morisaki T, Katano M, Ikubo A, Kitsuki R, Uchiyama A, Kuroki S, Taoaka M, Torisu M: Vascular endothelial growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor are potential angiogenic and metastatic factors in human breast cancer. Surgery 119:333-339, 1996
Obermair A, Kucera E, Mayerhofer K, Speiser P, Seifert M, Czerwenka K, Kaider A, Leodalter S, Kaintz C, Zeillinger R: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in human breast cancer: correlation with disease-free survival. Int J Cancer 74:455-458, 1997
Toi M, Gion M, Biganzoli E, Dittadi R, Boracchi P, Miceli R, Meli S, Mori K, Tominaga T, Gasparini G: Co-determination of the angiogenic factors thymidine phosphorylase and vascular endothelial growth factor in node-negative breast cancer: prognostic implications. Angiogenesis 1:71-83, 1997
Gasparini G, Toi M, Gion M, Verderio P, Dittadi R, Hanatani M, Matsubara I, Vinante O, Bonoldi E, Boracchi P, Gatti C, Suzuki I, Tominaga T: Prognostic significance of vascular endothelial growth factor protein in node-negative breast carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 89:139-147, 1997
Relf M, LeJeune S, Scott PAE, Fox S, Smith K, Leek R, Moghaddam A, Whitehouse R, Bicknell R, Harris AL: Expression of the angiogenic factors vascular endothelial cell growth factor, acidic and basic fibroblast growth factor, tumor growth factor β-1, platelet-derived endothelial growth factor, placenta growth factor, and pleiotrephin in human primary breast cancer and its relation to angiogenesis. Cancer Res 57:963-969, 1997
Vermeulen PB, Dirix LY, Salven P, Benoy L, Ranieri G, Toi M, Gasparini G: Assessing angiogenic factor concentrations in body fluids of cancer patients and in tumor cytosols: a review. Angiogenesis, in press
Vermeulen PB, Salven P, Benoy L, Gasparini G, Dirix LY: Blood platelets and serum VEGF in cancer patients. Br J Cancer, in press
Verheul HMW, Haekman K, Luykx-de Bakker S, Eekman CA, Folman CC, Broxterman HJ, Pinedo HM: Platelet: transporter of vascular endothelial growth factor. Clin Cancer Res 3:2187-2190, 1997
Folkman J: What is the role of thymidine phosphorylase in tumor angiogenesis? J Natl Cancer Inst 88:1091-1092, 1996
Griffths L, Stratford IJ: Platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor thymidine phosphorylase in tumor growth and response to therapy. Br J Cancer 76:689-693, 1997
Piper AA, Tattersall MHN, Fox RM: The activities of thymidine metabolising enzymes during the cell cycle of human lymphocyte cell line LAZ-007 synchronised by centrifugal elutriation. Biochim Biophys Acta 633:400-409, 1980
Fox SB, Westwood M, Moghaddam A, Comley M, Turley H, Whitehouse RM, Bicknell R, Gatter KC, Harris AL: The angiogenic factor platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor/thymidine phosphorylase is up-regulated in breast cancer epithelium and endothelium. Br J Cancer 73:275-280, 1996
Toi M, Hoshina S, Taniguchi T, Yamamoto Y, Ishitsuka H, Tominaga T: Expression of platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor/thymidine phosphorylase in human breast cancer. Int J Cancer 64:79-82, 1995
Seymour L, Bezwoda WR: Positive immunostaining for platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) is an adverse prognostic factor in patients with advanced breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 32:229-233, 1994
Engels K, Fox SB, Whitehouse RM, Gatter KC, Harris AL: Up-regulation of thymidine phosphorylase expression is associated with a discrete pattern of angiogenesis in ductal carcinomas in situ of the breast. J Pathol 182:414-420, 1997
Fox SB, Engels K, Comley M, Whitehouse RM, Turley H, Gatter KC, Harris AL: Relationship of elevated tumor thymidine phosphorylase in node-positive breast carcinomas to the effects of adjuvant CMF. Ann Oncol 8:271-275, 1997
Nagaoka H, Iino Y, Takei H, Morishita Y: Platelet-derived endothelial cell growth factor/thymidine phosphorylase expression in macrophages correlates with tumor angiogenesis and prognosis in invasive breast cancer. Int J Oncol 13:449-454, 1998
Gion M, Toi M, Dirix L, Dittadi R, Fanelli M, Vermeulen P, Gasparini G: Clinical significance of cytosolic levels in primary node-positive breast cancer of vascular endothelial growth factor and thymidine phosphorylase [Abstr 412]. Proc Amer Soc Clin Oncol, 1998, p 107a
Leek RD, Landers R, Fox SB, Ng F, Harris AL, Lewis CE: Association of tumor necrosis factor alpha and its receptors with thymidine phosphorylase expression in invasive breast carcinoma. Br J Cancer 77:2246-2251, 1998
Nagy J, Curry GW, Hillan KJ, Mallon E, Purushotham AD, George WD: Hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor, angiogenesis and tumor cell proliferation in primary breast cancer. Breast 5:105-109, 1996
Laterra J, Nam M, Rosen E, Rao JS, Lamszus K, Goldberg ID, Johnston P: Scatter factor/hepatocyte growth factor gene transfer enhances glioma growth and angiogenesis in vivo. Lab Invest 76:565-577, 1997
Taniguchi T, Toi M, Inada K, Imazawa T, Yamamoto Y, Tominaga T: Serum concentrations of hepatocyte growth factor in breast cancer patients. Clin Cancer Res 1:1031-1034, 1995
Mason IJ: The ins and outs of fibroblast growth factors. Cell 78:547-552, 1994
Kern FG, Lippman ME: The role of angiogenic growth factors in breast cancer progression. Cancer Metastasis Rev 15:213-219, 1996
Zhang L, Kharbanda S, Chen D, Bullocks J, Miller DL, Ding IY, Hanfelt J, McLeskey SW, Kern FG: MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells overexpressing FGF-1 form vascularized, metastatic tumors in ovariectomized or tamoxifen-treated nude mice. Oncogene 15:2093-2108, 1997
Colomer R, Aparicio J, Montero S, Guzmán C, Larrodera L, Cortés-Funes H: Low levels of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) are associated with a poor prognosis in human breast carcinoma. Br J Cancer 76:1215-1220, 1997
Yiangou C, Gomm JJ, Coope RC, Law M, Luqmani YA, Shousha S, Coombes RC, Johnston CL: Fibroblast growth factor 2 in breast cancer: occurrence and prognostic significance. Br J Cancer 75:28-33, 1997
Visscher DW, De Mattia F, Ottosen S, Sarkar FH, Crissman JD: Biologic and clinical significance of basic fibroblast growth factor immunostaining in breast carcinoma. Modern Pathol 8:665-670, 1995
Dirix LY, Vermeulen PB, Pawinski A, Prové A, Benoy I, De Pooter C, Martin M, Van Oosterom AT: Elevated levels of the angiogenic cytokines basic fibroblast growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor in sera of cancer patients. Br J Cancer 76:238-243, 1997
Coope RC, Browne PJ, Yiangou C, Bansal GS, Walters J, Groome N, Shousha S, Johnston CL, Coombes RC, Gomm JJ: The location of acidic fibroblast growth factor in the breast is dependent on the activity of proteases present in breast cancer tissue. Br J Cancer 75:1621-1630, 1997
Scott PA, Smith K, Poulsom R, De Benedetti A, Bicknell R, Harris AL: Differential expression of vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA vs protein isoform expression in human breast cancer and relationship to eIF-4E. Br J Cancer 77:2120-2128, 1998
Morelli D, Lazzerini D, Cazzaniga S, Squicciarini P, Bignami P, Maier JAM, Sfondrini L, Menard S, Colnaghi MI, Bolsari A: Evaluation of the balance between angiogenic and antiangiogenic circulating factors in patients with breast and gastrointestinal cancers. Clin Cancer Res 4:1221-1225, 1998
Yamashita J, Ogawa M, Jamashita S, Nomura K, Kuramoto M, Saishoji T, Shin S: Immunoreactive hepatocyte growth factor is a strong and independent predictor of recurrence and survival in human breast cancer. Cancer Res 54:1630-1633, 1994
Toi M, Hoshima S, Takayanagi T, Tominaga T: Association of vascular endothelial growth factor expression with tumor angiogenesis and with early relapse in primary breast cancer. Jpn J Cancer Res 85:1045-1049, 1994
Linderholm B, Tavelin K, Granksit R, Henriksson R: Prognostic value of vascular endothelial growth factor protein in node-negative breast cancer [Abstr 934]. Proc 10th NCI-EORTC symposium on new drugs in cancer therapy, Amsterdam. Ann Oncol 9(suppl 2): 522, 1998
Toi M, Taniguchi T, Yamamoto Y, Kurisaki H, Tominaga T: Clinical significance of the determination of angiogenic factors. Eur J Cancer 32A:2513-2519, 1996
Linderholm B, Tavelin B, Grankvist K, Henriksson R: Vascular endothelial growth factor protein-A predictor of survival in primary breast cancer [Abstr 386]. Proc Amer Soc Clin Oncol, 1998, p100a
Kim KJ, Li B, Winer J, Armanini M, Gillett N, Phillips HS, Ferrara N: Inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor-induced angiogenesis suppresses tumor growth in vivo. Nature 362:841-844, 1993
Hori A, Sasada R, Matsutani E, Naito K, Sakura Y, Fujita T, Kozai Y: Suppression of solid tumor growth by immunoneutralizing monoclonal antibody against human basic fibroblast growth factor. Cancer Res 51:6180-6184, 1991
Yuan F, Chen Y, Dellian M, Safabakhsh N, Ferrara N, Jain RK: Time-dependent vascular regression and permeability changes in established human tumor xenografts induced by an anti-vascular endothelial growth factor/vascular permeability factor antibody. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:14765-14770, 1996
Gasparini G: Antiangiogenic drugs as a novel anticancer therapeutic strategy. Which are the more promising agents? What are the clinical developments and indications? Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 26:147-162, 1997
Gordon MS, Talpalz M, Margolin K, et al: Phase I trial of recombinant humanized monoclonal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF MAB) in patients with metastatic cancer [Abstr 809]. Proc Amer Soc Clin Oncol 17:210, 1998
Bertin N, Clezardin P, Kubiak R, Frappart L: Thrombospondin 1 and 2 messenger RNA expression in normal, benign, and neoplastic human breast tissues: correlation with prognostic factors, tumor angiogenesis, and fibroblastic desmoplasia. Cancer Res 57:396-399, 1997
Roth JJ, Reiver DM, Granik MS, Rothman VL, Nicosia RF, Tuszynski GP: Histopathology and clinical assessment correlate with the cysteine-serine-valine-threonine-cysteine-glycine (CSVTCG) receptor of thrombospondin-1 in breast tumors. Histol Histopathol 12:1013-1018, 1997
Weinstat-Saslow DL, Zabrenetzky VS, VanHoutte K, Frazier WA, Roberts DD, Steeg PS: Transfection of thrombospondin 1 complementary DNA into a human breast carcinoma cell line reduces primary tumor growth, metastatic potential, and angiogenesis. Cancer Res 54:6504-6511, 1994
Volpert O, Stellmach V, Bouck N: The modulation of thrombospondin and other naturally occurring inhibitors of angiogenesis during tumor progression. Breast Cancer Res Treat 36:119-126, 1995
Zajchowski DA, Band V, Trask DK, Kling D, Connolly JL, Sager R: Suppression of tumor-forming ability and related traits in MCF-7 human breast cancer cell by fusion with immortal mammary epithelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:2314-2318, 1990
Xu M, Kumar D, Strass SA, Mixson AJ: Gene therapy with p53 and fragment of thrombospondin-1 inhibits human breast cancer in vivo. Mol Genet Metab 63:103-109, 1998
Dameron KM, Volpert OV, Tainsky MA, Bouck N: Control of angiogenesis in fibroblasts by p53 regulation of thrombospondin-1. Science 265:1582-1585, 1994
Incardona F, Leivalle JM, Morandi V, Lambert S, Legrand Y, Foidart JM, Legrand C: Thrombospondin modulates human breast adenocarcinoma cell adhesion to human vascular endothelial cells. Cancer Res 55:166-173, 1995
Arnoletti JP, Albo D, Granick MS, Solomon MP, Castiglioni A, Rothman VL, Tuzynski GP: Thrombospondin spondin and transforming growth-factor beta 1 increase expression of urokinase-type plasminogen activator and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 in human MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Cancer 76:998-1005, 1995
Griscelli F, Li H, Bennaceur-Griscelli A, Soria J, Opolon P, Soria C, Perricaudet M, Yeh P, Lu H: Angiostatin gene transfer: inhibition of tumor growth in vivo by blockage of endothelial cell proliferation associated with a mitosis arrest. Proc Natl Acad Sci 95:6367-6372, 1998
Zhu BT, Conney AH: Is 2-methoxyestradiol an endogenous estrogen metabolite that inhibits mammary carcinogenesis? Cancer Res 58:2269-2277, 1998
Fotsis TH, Zhang Y, Pepper MS, Adlercreutz H, Montesano R, Nawroth PP, Schwelgerer L: The endogenous oestrogen metabolite 2-methoxyoestradiol inhibits angiogenesis and suppresses tumor growth. Nature 368:237-239, 1994
Bischoff J: Cell adhesion and angiogensis. J Clin Invest 99:373-376, 1997
Fox SB, Leek RD, Weekes MP, Whitehouse RM, Gatter KC, Harris AL: Quantitation and prognostic value of breast cancer angiogensis: Comparison of microvessel density, Chalkley count and computer image analysis. J Pathol 177:275-283, 1995
Charpin C, Bergeret D, Garcia S, Andrac L, Martini F, Horschowski N, Choux R, Lavaut MN: ELAM selectin expression in breast carcinomas detected by automated and quantitative immunohistochemical assays. Int J Oncol 12:1041-1048, 1998
Ruoslahti E, Engvall E: Perspectives Series: Cell adhesion in vascular biology. J Clin Invest 99:1149-1152, 1997
Friedrichs K, Ruiz P, Franke F, Gille I, Terpe HJ, Imhof BA: High expression level of α6 integrin in human breast carcinoma is correlated with reduced survival. Cancer Res 55:901-906, 1995
Tagliabue E, Ghirelli C, Squicciarini P, Aiello P, Colnaghi MI, Menard S: Prognostic value of alpha 6 beta 4 integrin expression in breast carcinoma is affected by laminin production from tumor cells. Clin Cancer Res 4:407-410, 1998
Brooks PC, Stromblad S, Klemke R, Visscher D, Sarkar FH, & Cheresh DA: Antiintegrin αvβ3 blocks human breast cancer growth and angiogenesis in human skin. J Clin Invest 96:1815-1822, 1995
Gasparini G, Brooks PC, Biganzoli E, Vermeulen PB, Bonoldi E, Dirix LY, Ranieri G, Miceli R, Cheresh DA: Blood vessel expression of integrin αvβ3: a prognostic indicator in breast cancer patients. Clin Cancer Res, in press
Gutheil JC, Campbell TN, Pierce PR, et al: Phase I study of vitaxin, an anti-angiogenic humanized monoclonal antibody to vascular integrin αvβ3 [Abstr 832]. Proc Amer Soc Clin Oncol 17:215, 1998
Sipkins DA, Cheresh DA, Kazemi MR, Nevin LM, Bednarski MD, Li KCP: Detection of tumor angiogenesis in vivo by αvβ3-targeted magnetic resonance imaging. Nature Med 4:623-626, 1998
Natali PG, Nicotra MR, Bigotti A, Botti C, Castellani P, Risso AM, Zardi L: Comparative analysis of the expression of the extracellular matrix protein tenascin in normal human fetal, adult and tumor tissues. Int J Cancer 47:811-816, 1991
Ishihara A, Yoshida T, Tamaki H, Sakakura T: Tenascin expression in cancer cells and stroma of human breast cancer and its prognostic significance. Clin Cancer Res 1:1035-1041, 1995
Contrino J, Hair G, Kreutzer DL, Rickles FR: In situ detection of tissue factor in vascular endothelial cells: Correlation with the malignant phenotype of human breast disease. Nature Med 2:209-215, 1996
Gasparini G, Barbareschi M, Boracchi P, Bevilacqua P, Verderio P, Dalla Palma P, Menard S: 67-kDa laminin-receptor expression adds prognostic information to intra-tumoral microvessel density in nodenegative breast cancer. Int J Cancer 60:604-610, 1995
Folkman J: The influence of angiogenesis research on management of patients with breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 36:109-118, 1995
Gasparini G: Angiogenesis in breast cancer: Role in biology, tumor progression, and prognosis. In: Bowcock A (ed) Breast Cancer. Humana Press, in press, 1998
Gasparini G: Is determination of angiogenic activity in human tumours clinically useful? Eur J Cancer 34:615-618, 1998
Jain RK, Schlenger K, Hockel M, Yuan F: Quantitative angiogenesis assays: Progress and problems. Nature Med 3:1203-1208, 1997
Gasparini G, Presta M: Clinical studies with angiogenesis inhibitors: biological rationale and challenges for their evaluation. Ann Oncol 7:441-444, 1996
Gasparini G: The rationale and future potential of angiogenesis inhibitors in neoplasia. Drugs, in press
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Locopo, N., Fanelli, M. & Gasparini, G. Clinical significance of angiogenic factors in breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 52, 159–173 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006175504673
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006175504673