Abstract
Among early-passage, near-diploid gliomas in vitro, transforming growth factor type β (TGFβ) has been previously shown to be an autocrine growth inhibitor. In contrast, hyperdiploid (≥ 57chromosomes/metaphase) glioblastoma multiforme (HD-GM) cultures were autocrinely stimulated by the TGFβ. The mechanism of this ‘conversion’ from autocrine inhibitor to mitogen is not understood; previous studies have suggested that platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) might be modulated by TGFβ. The similar expression of TGFβ types 1—3, PDGF-AA, — BB, as well as the PDGF receptor α and β subunits (a/βPDGFR) between biopsies of the HD-GM and near-diploid, TGFβ-inhibited glioblastomas (GM) by immunohistochemistry did not explain the discrepancy in their regulatory responses. Flowcytometry demonstrated that TGFβ's mitogenic effect was selective for the aneuploid subpopulations of two of three selected HD-GM cultures,while the diploid cells were inhibited. Among the HD-GM, TGFβ1 induced the RNA of PDGF-A, c-sis and TGFβ1. The amount of PDGF-AA secreted following TGFβ treatment was sufficient to stimulate the proliferation of a HD-GM culture. Antibodies against PDGF-AA, -BB, -AB,αPDGFR and/or βPDGFR subunits effectively neutralized TGFβ's induction of DNA synthesis among the HD-GM cell lines, indicating that PDGF served as the principal mediator of TGFβ's growth stimulatory effect. By comparison, TGFβ induced only the RNA of PDGF-A and TGFβ1 among the near-diploid GM; c-sis was not expressed at all. However, the amount of PDGF-A which was secreted in response to TGFβ1 was insufficient to prevent TGFβ's arrest of the near-diploid cultures in G1 phase. Thus, the emergence of hyperdiploidy was associated with qualitative and quantitative differences in TGFβ's modulation of PDGF-A and c-sis, which provided a mechanism by which the aneuploid glioma cellsmight achieve ‘clonal dominance’. We hypothesize that TGFβ may serve as an autocrine promoter of GM progression by providing a selective advantage to the hyperdiploid subpopulation through the loss of a tumor suppressor gene which mediates TGFβ's inhibitory effect.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Toru-delbauffe D, Baghdassarian-Chalaye D, Gavaret JM, Courtin F, Pomerance M, Pierre M: Effects of transforming growth factor beta 1 on astroglial cells in culture. J Neurochem 54: 1056–1061, 1990
Ryken TC, Traynelis VC, Lim R: Interaction of acidic fibroblast growth factor and transforming growth factor-??in normal and transformed glia in vitro. J Neurosurg 76: 850–855, 1992
Hunter KE, Sporn MG, Davies AM: Transforming growth factor-betas inhibit mitogen-stimulated proliferation of astrocytes. Glia 7: 203–233, 1993
Vergelli V, Mazzanti B, Ballerini C, Gran B, Amaducci L, Massacesi L: Transforming growth factor-?1 inhibits the proliferation of rat astrocytes induced by serum and growth factors. J Neurosci Res 40: 127–133, 1995
Lindholm D, Castrem E, Keifer R, Zafra F, Thoenen H: Transforming growth factor-beta 1 in the rat brain: increase after injury and inhibition of astrocyte proliferation. J Cell Biol 117: 395–400, 1992
da Cunha A, Jefferson JJ, Tyor WR, Glass JD, Jannotta FS, Vitkovic L: Control of astrocytosis by interleukin-1 and transforming growth factor-?1 in human brain. Brain Res 631: 39–45, 1993
Shipley GD, Tucker RF, Moses HL: Type ?-transforming growth factor/growth inhibitor stimulates entry of monolayer cultures of AKR-2B cells into S-phase after a prolonged prereplicative interval. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82: 4147–4151, 1985
Pietenpol JA, Stein RW, Moran E, Yaciuk P, Schlegel R, Lyons RM, Pittelkow MR, Munger K, Howley PM, Moses HL: TGF-?1 inhibition of c-myctranscription and growth in keratinocytes is abrogated by viral transforming proteins with pRB binding domains. Cell 61: 777–785, 1990
Laiho M, DeCaprio JA, Ludlow JW, Livingston DM, Massague J: Growth inhibition by TGF-??linked to suppression of retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation. Cell 62: 175–185, 1990
Jennings MT, Maciunas RJ, Carver RS, Bascom CC, Juneau P, Misulis K, Moses HL: TGF?1 and TGF?2 are potential growth regulators for low-grade and malignant gliomas in vitro: evidence in support of an autocrine hypothesis. Int J Cancer 49: 129–139, 1991
Jennings MT, Kaariainen IT, Gold LI, Maciunas RJ, Commers PA: TGF?1 and TGF?2 are potential growth regulators for medulloblastomas, primitive neuroectodermal tumors and ependymomas: evidence in support of an autocrine hypothesis. Human Pathol 25: 464–475, 1994
Filmus J, Kerbel RS: Development of resistance mechanisms to the growth-inhibitory effects of transforming growth factor-??during tumor progression. Curr Opin Oncol 5: 123–129, 1993
Leof EB, Proper JA, Goustin AS, Shipley GD, Dicorletto PE, Moses HL: Induction of c-sismRNA and activity similar to platelet-derived growth factor by transforming growth factor ?: a proposed model for indirect mitogenesis involving autocrine activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 83: 2453–2457, 1986
Moses HL, Tucker RF, Leof EB, Coffey RJ Jr, Halper J, Shipley GD: Type beta transforming growth factor is a growth stimulator and a growth inhibitor. In: Feramisco J, Osanne B, Stiles C (eds) Cancer Cells, Vol. 3, Cold Spring Harbor Press, New York 64–71, 1985
Beauchamp RD, Sheng H-M, Bascom CC, Miller DA, Lyons RM, Torre-Amione G, Moses HL: Phenotypic alterations in fibroblasts and fibrosarcoma cells that overexpress latent transforming growth factor-?1. Endocrinology 130: 2476–2486, 1992
Soma Y, Grotendorst GR: TGF-beta stimulates primary human skin fibroblast DNA synthesis via an autocrine production of PDGF-related peptides. J Cell Physiol 140: 246–253, 1989
Battegay EJ, Raines EW, Seifert RA, Bowen-Pope DF, Ross R: TGF-??induces bimodal proliferation of connective tissue cells via complex control of an autocrine PDGF loop. Cell 63: 515–524, 1990
Gronwald RGK, Seifert RA, Bowen-Pope DF: Differential regulation of expression of two platelet-derived growth factor receptor subunits by transforming growth factor-?. J Biol Chem 264: 8120–8125, 1989
Ishikawa O, LeRoy EC, Trojanowska M: Mitogenic effect of transforming growth factor ?1 on human fibroblasts involves the induction of platelet-derived growth factor ??receptors. J Cell Physiol 145: 181–186, 1990
Janat MF, Liau G: Transforming growth factor ?1 is a powerful modulator of platelet-derived growth factor action in vascular smooth muscle cells. J Cell Physiol 150: 232–242, 1992
Agrotis A, Saltis J, Bobik A: Effect of transforming growth factor ?-1 on platelet-derived growth factor receptor binding and gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells from SHR and WKY rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 21: 145–148, 1994
Pinzani M, Gentilini A, Caligiuri A, De Franco R, Pellegrini G, Milani S, Marra F, Gentilini P: Transforming growth factor ?-1 regulates platelet-derived growth factor receptor ? subunit in human liver fat-storing cells. Hepatology 21: 232–239, 1995
Helseth E, Unsgaard G, Dalen A, Vik R: The effects of type beta transforming growth factor on proliferation and epidermal growth factor receptor expression in a human glioblastoma line. J Neuro-Oncol 6: 269–276, 1988
Plouet J, Gospodarowicz D: Transforming growth factor ?-1 positively modulates the bioactivity of fibroblast growth factor on corneal endothelial cells. J Cell Physiol 141: 392–399, 1989
Howe PH, Leof EB: Transforming growth factor ?1 treatment of AKR-2B cells is coupled through a pertussis-toxinsensitive G-protein(s). Biochem J 261: 879–886, 1989
Robertson PL, Markovac J, Datta SC, Goldstein GW: Transforming growth factor beta stimulates phophoinositol metabolism and translocation of protein kinase C in cultured astrocytes. Neurosci Lett 93: 107–113, 1988
Daniel TO, Gibbs VC, Milfay DF, Williams LT: Agents that increase cAMP accumulation block endothelial c-sisinduction by thrombin and transforming growth factor-?. J Biol Chem 262: 11893–11896, 1987
Ethier S: Growth factor synthesis and human breast cancer progression. J Natl Instit 87: 964–973, 1995
Yamakage A, Kikuchi K, Smith EA, LeRoy EC, Trojanowska M: Selective upregulation of platelet-derived growth factor ??receptor subunits by transforming growth factor ? in scleroderma fibroblasts. J Exp Med 175: 1227–1234, 1992
Press RD, Misra A, Gillaspy G, Samols D, Goldthwait DA: Control of the expression of c-sismRNA in human glioblastoma cells by phorbol ester and transforming growth factor ?. Cancer Res 49: 2914–2920, 1989
Mapstone TB: Expression of platelet-derived growth factor and transforming growth factor and their correlation with cellular morphology in glial tumors. J Neurosurg 75: 447–451, 1991
Jennings MT, Ebrahim SAD, Thaler HT, Jennings VDL, Asadourian LHH, Shapiro JR: Immunophenotypic differences between normal glia, astrocytomas and malignant gliomas: correlations with karyotype, natural history and survival. J Neuroimmunol 25: 7–28, 1989
Jennings MT, Asadourian LLH, Jennings VDL, Shapiro JR, Thaler HT: Factor analysis of immunophenotypes of astrocytomas and malignant gliomas: correlations with tumor grade and patient survival. J Neuro-Oncol 9: 265–273, 1990
Sternberger LA, Hardy PH Jr, Cuculis JJ, Meyer HG: The unlabeled antibody enzyme method of immunohistochemistry. Preparation and properties of soluble antigen-antibody complex (horseradish peroxidase-antiperoxidase) and its use in the identification of spirochetes. J Histochem Cytochem 18: 315–333, 1970
Jennings MT, Jennings VDL, Asadourian LLH, Rosenblum M, Albino AP, Cairncross JG, Old LJ: Five novel cell surface antigens of CNS neoplasms. J Neurol Sci 89: 63–78, 1989
Pelton RW, Saxena B, Jones M, Moses HL, Gold LI: Immunohistochemical localization of TGF?1, TGF?2, and TGF?3 in the mouse embryo: expression patterns suggest multiple roles during embryonic development. J Cell Biol 115: 1091–1105, 1991
Hart CE, Seifert RA, Ross R, Bowen-Pope DF: Synthesis, phosphorylation, and degradation of multiple forms of the platelet-derived growth factor receptor studied using a monoclonal antibody. J Biol Chem 262: 10780–10785, 1987
Tiesman J, Hart CE: Identification of a soluble receptor for platelet-derived growth factor in cell-conditioned medium and human plasma. J Biol Chem 268: 9621–9628, 1993
Miller DA, Lee A, Pelton RW, Chen EY, Moses HL, Derynck R: Murine transforming growth factor-beta2 cDNA sequence and expression in adult tissues and embryos. Mol Endocr. 3: 1108–1114, 1989
Derynck R, Jarrett JA, Chen EY, Goeddel DV: The murine transforming growth factor-??precursor. J Biol Chem 261: 4377–4379, 1986
Gronwald RGK, Grant FJ, Haldeman B, Hart CE, O'Hara P, Hagen FS, Ross R, Bowen-Pope DF, Murray M: Cloning and expression of a cDNA coding for the human platelet-derived growth factor receptor: evidence for more than one receptor class. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85: 2435–2439, 1988
Kelly JD, Haldeman BA, Grant FJ, Murray MJ, Seifert RA, Bowen-Pope DF, Cooper JA, Kazlauskas A: PDGF stimulates PDGF receptor dimerization and intersubunit transphosphorylation. J Biol Chem 266: 8987–8992, 1991
Danielson PE, Forss-petter S, Brow A: p1B15: cDNA clone of the rat mRNA encoding cyclophilin. DNA 7: 261–267, 1988
Rigby PW, Dieckmann M, Rhodes C, Berg P: Labeling deoxyribonucleic acid to high specific activity in vitroby nick translation with DNA polymerase. J Mol Biol 113: 237–251, 1977
Semba K, Kamata N, Toyoshima K, Yamamoto TA: v-erbB-related protooncogene, c-erbB-2, is distinct from the cerbB-1/epidermal growth factor-receptor gene and is amplified in a human salivary gland adenocarcinoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82: 6497–6501, 1985
Blum M: Regulation of neuroendocrine peptide gene expression. Meth Enzymol 168: 618–633, 1989
Sambrook J, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T: Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 2nd Ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989
Hart CE, Bailey M, Curtis S, Osborn S, Raines E, Ross R, Forstrom JW: Purification of PDGF-AB and PDGF-BB from human platelet extracts and the identification of all three PDGF dimers in human platelets. Biochemistry 29: 166–172, 1990
Ansel JC, Tiesman JP, Olerud JE, Krueger JG, Krane JF, Tara DC, Shipley GD, Gilbertson D, Usui ML, Hart CE: Human keratinocytes are a major source of cutaneous platelet-derived growth factor. J Clin Inv 92: 671–678, 1993
Gold LI, Saxena B, Zagzag D, Miller DC, Koslow M, Brandeis L, Farmer J-P: Increased expression of TGF-??isoforms by malignant gliomas. J Cell Biochem 16B: 123, 1992
Pollack IF, Randall MS, Kristofik MP, Kelly RH, Selker RG, Vertosick FT Jr: Response of low-passage human malignant gliomas in vitroto stimulation and selective inhibition of growth factor-mediated pathways. J Neurosurg 75: 284–293, 1991
Harsh GR, Keating MT, Escobedo JA, Williams LT: Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) autocrine components in human tumor cell lines. J Neuro-Oncol 8: 1–12, 1990
Goyette MC, Cho K, Fasching CL, Levy DB, Kinzler KW, Paraskeva C, Vogelstein B, Stanbridge EJ: Progression of colorectal cancer is associated with multiple tumor suppressor gene defects but inhibition of tumorigenicity is accomplished by correction of any single defect by chromosome transfer. Molec Cell Biol 12: 1387–1395, 1992
Makela TP, Alitalo R, Paulsson Y, Westermark B, Heldin C-H, Alitalo K: Regulation of platelet-derived growth factor gene expression by transforming growth factor ??and phorbol ester in human leukemia cell lines. Molec Cell Biol 7: 3656–3662, 1987
Bronzert DA, Bates SE, Sheridan JP, Lindsey R, Valverius EM, Stampfer MR, Lippman ME, Dickson RB: Transforming growth factor-??induces platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) messenger RNA and PDGF secretion while inhibiting growth in normal mammary epithelial cells. Molec Endocrinol 4: 981–989, 1990
Vavruch L, Enestrom S, Carstensen J, Nordenskjold B, Wingren S: DNA index and S-phase in primary brain tumors. J Neurosurg 80: 85–89, 1994
Bigner SH, Mark J, Bullard DE, Mahaley MS Jr, Bigner DD: Chromosomal evolution in malignant human gliomas starts with specific and usually numerical deviations. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 22: 121–135, 1986
Lang FF, Miller DC, Koslow M, Newcomb EW: Pathways leading to glioblastoma multiforme: a molecular analysis of genetic alterations in 65 astrocytic tumors. J Neurosurg 81: 427–436, 1994
Rasheed BKA, McLendon RE, Herndon JE, Friedman HS, Friedman AH, Bigner DD, Bigner SH: Alterations of the TP53 gene in human gliomas. Cancer Res 54: 1324–1330, 1994
Henson JW, Schnitker BL, Correa KM, von Deimling A, Fassbender F, Xu H-J, Benedict WF, Yandell DW, Louis DN: The retinoblastoma gene is involved in malignant progression of astrocytomas. Ann Neurol 36: 714–721, 1994
Martini R, DeMattei M, Iaccheri L, Lazzarin L, Barbanti-Brodano G, Tognon M, Gerosa M: Human brain tumors and simian virus 40. J Natl Cancer Instit 87: 1331, 1995
Kerbel RS: Expression of multi-cytokine resistance and multi-growth factor independence in advanced stage metastatic cancer. Malignant melanoma as a paradigm. Am J Pathol 141: 519–524, 1992
Kimmel DW, O'Fallon JR, Scheithauer BW, Kelly PJ, Dewald GW, Jenkins RB: Prognostic value of cytogenetic analysis in human cerebral astrocytomas. Ann Neurol 31: 534–542, 1992
Jachimczak P, Bogdahn UJ, Schneider J, Behl C, Meixensberger J, Apfel R, Dörries R, Schlingensiepen K-H, Brysch W: The effect of transforming growth factor-?2-specific phosphothioate-anti-sense oligodeoxynucleotides in reversing cellular immunosuppression in malignant glioma. J Neurosurg 78: 944–951, 1993
Schwarz LC, Gingras M-C, Goldberg G, Greenberg AH, Wright JA: Loss of growth factor dependence and conversion of transforming growth factor-?1 inhibition to stimulation in metastatic H-ras-transformed murine fibroblasts. Cancer Res 48: 6999–7003, 1988
Mooradian DL, Purchio AF, Furcht LT: Differential effects of transforming growth factor ?1 on the growth of poorly and highly metastatic murine melanoma cells. Cancer Res 50: 273–277, 1990
Friedman E, Gold LI, Klimstra D, Zeng Z-S, Winawer S, Cohen A: High levels of transforming growth factor ?1 correlate with disease progression in human colon cancer. Cancer Epidem Biomark Prevent 4: 549–554, 1995
Welch D, Fabra A, Nakajima M: Transforming growth factor ??stimulates mammary adenocarcinoma cell invasion and metastatic potential. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87: 7678–7682, 1990
Arrick BA, Lopez AR, Elfman F, Ebner R, Damsky CH, Derynck R: Altered metabolic and adhesive properties and increased tumorigenesis associated with increased expression of transforming growth factor ?1. J Cell Biol 118: 715–726, 1992
Theodorescu D, Caltabiano M, Greig R, Rieman D, Kerbel RS: Reduction of TGF-beta activity abrogates growth promoting tumor cell-cell interactions in vivo. J Cell Physiol 148: 380–390, 1991
Plate KH, Breier G, Farrell CL, Risau W: Platelet-derived growth factor receptor-??is induced during tumor development and upregulated during tumor progression in endothelial cells in human gliomas. Lab Investig 67: 529–534, 1992
Arteaga CL, Carty-Dugger T, Moses HL, Hurd SD, Pietenpol JA: Transforming growth factor ?1 can induce estrogenindependent tumorigenicity of human breast cancer cells in athymic mice. Cell Growth Different 4: 193–201, 1993
Assoian RK, Grotendorst GR, Miller DM, Sporn MB: Cellular transformation by coordinated action of three peptide growth factors from human platelets. Nature 309: 804–806, 1984
Hermansson M, Nister M, Betscholtz C, Heldin C-H, Westermark B, Funa K: Endothelial cell hyperplasia in human glioblastoma: coexpression of mRNA for platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) B chain and PDGF receptor suggests autocrine growth stimulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85: 7748–7752, 1988
Plate KH, Breier G, Farrell CL, Risau W: Platelet-derived growth factor receptor-??is induced during tumor development and upregulated during tumor progression in endothelial cells in human gliomas. Lab Invest 67: 529–534, 1992
Knabbe C, Lippman ME, Wakefield LM, Flanders KC, Kasid A, Derynck R, Dickson RB: Evidence that transforming growth factor-??is a hormonally regulated negative growth factor in human breast cancer cells. Cell 48: 417–428, 1987
Batova A, Danielpour D, Pirisi L, Creek KE: Retinoic acid induces secretion of latent transforming growth factor ?1 and ?2 in normal and human papillomavirus type 16-immortalized human keratinocytes. Cell Growth Different 3: 763–772, 1992
Newcombe EW, Madonia WJ, Pisharody S, Lang FF, Koslow M, Miller DC: A correlative study of p53 protein alteration and p53 gene mutation in glioblastoma multiforme. Brain Pathol 3: 229–235, 1993
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jennings, M.T., Hart, C.E., Commers, P.A. et al. Transforming growth factor b as a potential tumor progression factor among hyperdiploid glioblastoma cultures: Evidence for the role of platelet-derived growth factor. J Neurooncol 31, 233–253 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005767616500
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005767616500