Abstract
This paper describes the development of a technique to characterise carbonaceous fly-ash particles as part of a larger EU COPERNICUS project 'Fly-ash and metals in Europe: Implications for human and environmental health (FLAME)'. Source samples of fly-ash from 32 power stations covering five different fossil-fuel-types - coal, oil, peat, brown coal and oil shale were analysed by computer controlled scanning electron microscopy (CCSEM) with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). A classification scheme was developed and used to apportion surface sediment samples from lakes or reservoirs in Estonia, the Czech Republic, Ireland and the United Kingdom. This paper discusses the analytical part of the FLAME project. As this was one of the first applications of this type of approach and utilises only one individual particle analysis method (CCSEM), other current techniques are reviewed to evaluate possible future improvements. Chemical analysis by other micro-analytical techniques, especially laser microprobe mass analysis (LMMS) and micro-particle induced X-ray emission (µ-PIXE) have been extensively reviewed by other authors. This work is summarised and aspects relevant to carbon particles are discussed. Particle shape characterisation is an area that has received a great deal of attention and remains very problematic for many complex anthropogenic and environmental particles. Considerable research has been undertaken using shape factors, fractals, Fourier transforms and neural networks. The final part of the paper reviews some of the more relevant developments in the area of shape description as it applies to particulate material, and especially carbonaceous particles of the type analysed in the FLAME programme.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adler, J. and Allen, M.: 1994, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization. 11, 418-425.
Alliksaar, T. and Punning, J.M.: this volume, Water, Air and Pollut.
Andersen, C.A.: 1973, Microprobe Analysis. John Wiley and Sons.
Anderson, J.R., Buseck, P.R., Saucy, D.A. and Pacyna, J.M,: 1992, Atmos. Environ. Part A-General Topics. 26, 1747-1762.
Anderson, J.R., Buseck, P.R., Patterson, T.L. and Arimoto, R.: 1996, Atmos. Environ. 30, 319-338.
Armstrong, J.T. and Buseck, P.R.: 1985, X-ray Spectrometry 14, 172-182.
Bacci, P., Del Monte, M., Longhetto, A., Piano, A., Prodi, F., Redaelli, P., Subbioni, C. and Ventura, A.: 1983, J. Aerosol Sci. 14, 557-572.
Battarbee, R.W. and Charles, D.F.: 1986, Water Air and Soil Pollut. 30, 347-354.
Battarbee, R.W. and Renberg, I.: 1990, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Series B). 327, 227-232.
Batterbee, R.W., Allou, T.E.H., Juggins, S., Kreiser, A.M., Curtis, C. and Harriman, R.: 1996, Ambio. 25, 366-369.
Berge, F., Brodin, Y.W. Cronberg, G. Eldaoushy, F. Hoeg, H.I. Nilssen, J.P. Renberg. I. Rippey, B. Sandoy, S. Timberlid, A. and Wik, M.: 1990, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Series B) 327, 385-389.
Bogdanovic, I., Fazinie, S., Jaksic, M., Grime, G.W. and Valkovic, V., 1994, Nuclear-lnstruments and Methods in Physics Reaserch Section B-Beam Insteractions with Materials and Atoms. 85, 732-735.
Bowman, I.J., and Harlock, S.: this volume, Water, Air and Soil Pollut.
Brown, G.J., and Miles, N.J.: 1995, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization, 12, 166-169.
Brown, G.J., Miles, N.J. and Jones, T.F.: 1996, Mineral Engineering 9, 715-726.
Chan, L.C.Y. and Page, N.W.: 1997, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization 14, 67-72.
Cheng, R.J., Mohnen, V.A., Shen, T.T., Current, M. and Hudson, J.B.: 1976, J. Air Pollut. Cont. Assoc. 26, 787-790
Clark, N.N.: 1986, Powder Tech. 46, 45-52.
Clark, N.N.: 1987, Powder Tech. 51, 243-249.
Clark, N.N., Maeder, A.J. and Reilly, S.: 1992, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization. 9, 9-18.
Colbeck, I. and Nyeki, S.: 1992, Science Progress. 76, 149-166.
Coles, D.G., Ragaini, R.C., Ondov, J.M., Fisher, G.L., Silberman, D. and Prentice, B.A.: 1979, Environ. Sci. Tech. 13, 455-459.
De Boc, L.A., Van Malderen, H. and Van Gricken, R.E.: 1994, Environ. Sci. Tech. 28, 1513-1520.
De Boc, L.A., Jambers, W. and Van Grieken, R.E.: 1996a, South African Journal of Chemistry-Suid Afritkaanse Tydskrif Vir Chemie. 49, 65-72.
De Boc, L.A., Van Grieken, R.E., Camuffo, D. and Grime, G.W.: 1996b, Environ. Sci. Tech. 30 , 3341-3350.
De Boe, D.H.: 1997, Hydrological Processes. 11, 415-426.
Dobbins, R.A., Mulholland, G.W. and Bryner, N.P.: 1994, Atmos. Environ. 28, 889-897.
Dobbins, R.A., Fletcher, R.A. and Lu, W.: 1995, Combustion and Flame. 100, 301-309.
Figler, B., Sahle, W., Krantz, S. and Ulfvarson, U.: 1996, Sci. Total Environ. 193, 77-83.
Fott, J., Vukic, J. and Rose, N.L.: this volume, Water, Air and Soil Pollut.
Fruhstorfer, P. and Niessner, R.: 1994, Mikrochimica Acta. 113, 239-250.
Gentry, J.W.: 1990, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization. 7, 87-92.
Gladney, E.S., Small, J.A., Gordon, J.E. and Zoller, W.H.: 1976, Atmos. Environ. 10, 1071-1077.
Griffin, J.J and Goldberg, E.D.: 1981, Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta. 45, 763-769.
Griffin, J.J. and Goldberg, E.D.: 1983, Environ. Sci. Tech. 17, 244-245.
Hamilton, R.S., Kershaw, P.R., Segarra, F., Spears, C.J. and Watt, J.M.: 1994, Sci. Total. Environ. 147, 303-308.
Hancock, D.I., Richards, M.I., and Adler, J.: 1993, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization 10, 308-312.
Hulett, L.D., Weinberger, A.J., Northeutt, K.J. and Ferguson, M.: 1980, Science. 210, 1356-1358.
Hundal, U.S., Rohani, S., Wood, H.C. and Pons, M.N.: 1997, PowderTech. 91, 217-227.
Hunt, A., Johnson, D.L, and Thornton, I.: 1991, Water Air and Soil Pollut. 57-8, 69-77.
Hunt, A., Johnson, D,L., Watt, J.M. and Thornton, I.: 1992, Environ. Sci.Tech. 26, 1513-1523.
Hunt, A., Johnson, D.L., Thornton, I. and Watt, J.M.: 1993, Sci. Total Environ. 138, 183-206.
ltkonen, A.O, and Janrunen, M.J.: 1986. Environ. Sci. Tech. 20, 335-340.
Jambers, W., De Bock, L. and Van Gricken, R.: 1995, Analyst. 120, 681-692.
Jambers, W., De Bock, L. and Van Gricken, R.: 1996, Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 355, 521-527.
Jambers, W. and Van Grieken, R.: 1996, Trends in Anal. Chem. 15, 114-122.
Jambers, W., Smekens, A., Van Grieken, R., Shevehenko, V. and Gordeev, V.: 1997, Colloids und Surfaces A-Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 120, 61-75.
Jamber, W, and Van Grieken, R.: 1997, Environ. Sci. Tech. 31, 1525-1533.
Katrinak, K.A., Rez, P. and Buseck, P.R.: 1992, Environ. Sci.Tech. 26, 1967-1976.
Katrinak, K.A., Rez, P., Perkes, P.R. and Buseck, P.R.: 1993, Environ. Sci. Tech. 27, 539-547.
Katrinak, K.A., Anderson, J.R. and Buseck, P.R.: 1995, Environ. Sci.Tech. 29, 321-329.
Kaye, B.H., Trottien, R.A. and Clark, G.G.: 1992, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization. 9, 209-212.
Kaye, B.H., Clark, G.G. and Kydar, Y.: 1994, Particle and Particle Sytems Characterization. 11, 411-417.
Kaye, B.H.,: 1989, A randomwalk through fractal dimensions, VCH Publishers, Weinheim.
Kaye, B.H.: 1993, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization. 10, 99-110.
Keeley, R.H.: 1984, J. Forensic Science Society. 24, 419-420.
Kindratenko, V.V., Van Espen, P.J.M., Treiger, B.A. and Van Grieken, R.H.: 1994, Environ. Sci. Tech. 28, 2197-2202.
Kirk, T.B., Panrzera, D., Anamalay, R.V. and Xu, Z.L.: 1995, Wear, 181, 717-722.
Kohlus, R. and Bottlinger, M.: 1993, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization. 10, 275-278.
Kruis, F.E., Van Denderen, J., Burman, H, and Scarlett, B.: 1994, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization. 11, 426-435.
Lapo, A. and Vdovets, M.: 1991, Oil Shale. 8, 169-176.
Larsen, J., Boyle, J.F. and Birk, H.J.B.: 1996, Water, Air and Soil Pollut. 88, 47-81.
Lee, C.T. and Chou, C.: 1994, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization. 11, 436-441.
Ludlow, D.K., and Vosen, W.M.: 1993. Particle and Particle Systems Characterization. 10, 313-320.
Mamane, Y., Miller, J.L. and Dzubay, T.G.: 1986, Atmos. Environ. 20, 2125-2135.
Mandelbrot, B.B.: 1977, Fractuals: Form, Chance and Dimension, Freeman, San Francisco.
Mandelbrot, B.B.: 1983, The Fractal Geometry of Nature, Freeman, San Francisco.
Mejstrik, V. and Svacha, J.: 1988, Sci.Total Environ. 72, 43-55.
Meloy, T.P.: 1977. Powder Technology. 17, 233.
Opik, I.P.: 1989, Oil Shale, 6, 270-275.
Orlie, I., Watt., F., Loh, K.K. and Tang, S.M.: 1994, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B. 85, 840-844.
Palotas, B., Rainey, L.C., Feldermann, C.J. Sarofim, A.F. and Vandersande, J.B.: 1996. Microscopy Research and Technique. 33, 2b6-278.
Raeymaekers, B., Demuynek, M., Dorrine, W, and Adams, F.: 1988, Int. J. Env. Anal. Chem. 32, 291-312.
Ramsden, A.R. and Shiboaka, M.: 1982, Atmos. Environ. 16, 2191-2206.
Renberg, I. and Wik, M.: 1985, Ambio, 14, 161-163.
Renberg, I., Brodin, Y.W., Cronberg, G., Eldaoushy, F., Oldfield, F., Rippey, B., Sandoy, S., Wallin, J.E. and Wik, M.: 1990, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Series B). 327, 391-396.
Rietmeijer, F.J.M. and Janeczek, J.: 1997, Atmos. Environ. 31, 1941-1951.
Rose, N.L., 1994, Hydrobiologia. 274, 127-132.
Rose, N.L., Alliksaar, T., Bowman, J.J., Fott, J., Harlock, S., Juggins, S., Punning, J.M., St Clair-Gribble, K., Vukic, J., Watt, J. and Boyle, J.: this volume, Water, Air and Soil Pollut.
Rose, N.L., Alliksaar, T., Bowman, J.J., Fott, J., Harlock, S., Punning, J.M., St Clair-Gribble, K., Vukic, J. and Watt J.: this volume, Water, Air and Soil Pollut.
Rose, N.L. and Harlock, S.: this volume, Water, Air and Soil Pollut.
Rose, N.L. and Juggins, S.: 1994, Atmos. Environ. 28, 177-183.
Rose, N.L., Juggins, S. and Watt, J.: submitted, Atmos. Environ..
Rose, L., Juggins, S. and Watt, J.: 1996, Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. (Series A), 452, 881-907.
Rose, N.L., Juggins, S., Watt, J. and Battarbee, R.: 1994, Ambio. 23, 296-299.
Rosler R., Schneider, H.A. and Schuberth, R.: 1987, Powder Tech. 49, 255-260.
Roylance, B.J. and Raadnui, S.: 1994, Wear. 175, 115-121.
Roylance, B.J.: 1994, Insight. 36, 606-610.
Schule, A., Rasemann, W. and Preusse, C.: 1997, Particle and Particle Systems Chracterization. 14, 21-29.
Shibata, T. and Yamaguchi, K.: 1994, Powder Tech. 81, 111-115.
Stotfyn-Egli, P., Potter, T.M., Leonard, J.D. and Pocklington, R,: 1997, Sci.Total Environ. 198, 21 1-223.
Thomas, A.D.H., Davies, T. and Luxmoore, A.R.: 1991, Wear. 142, 213-226.
Thompson, M. and Walsh, J.N,: 1983, A Handbook of Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry. Blackie.
Thompson, M. and Woods, S: 1982, In Cantle, E.J. Atomic Absorbtion Spectrometry, Elsevier.
Van Bor, W.A. and Adams, F.C.: 1991. X-ray Spectrometry, 20, 51-62.
Van Espe, P.: 1994, Mikrochimica Acta. 114/5, 129-142.
Van Malderen, H., Rojas, C. and Van Grieken, R.: 1992, Environ. Sci.Tech. 26, 750-756.
Van Maideren, H., Van Grieken, R., Khodzher, T., Obolkin, V. and Potemkin, V.: 1996a, Atmos. Environ. 30 , 1453-1465.
Van Malderen, H., Van Gricken, R., Bufetov, N.V. and Koutzenogii, K.P.: 1996b, Environ. Sci.Tech. 30, 312-321.
Van Malderen, H., Hoomaert, S. and Van Grieken, P.: 1996c. Environ. Sci. Tech., 30, 489-498.
Vivier, H., Marcant, B. and Pons, M.N.: 1994, Particle and Particle Systems Characterization. 11, 150-155.
Vivier, H., Pons, M,N., Bernardmichel, B., Rolland, T., Voignier, L. and Vucak, M.: 1996, Microscopy, Microanalysis Microstructures 7, 467-475.
Watt, F., Orlic,I., Loh, K.K., Sow, C.H., Thong, P., Liew, S.C., Osipowicz, T., Choo, T.F. and Tang, S.M.: 1994, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B. 85, 708-715.
Wik, M., Renberg, I. and Darley, J.: 1986, Hydrobiogia. 143, 387-394.
WiK, M. and Renberg, I.: 1990, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (Series B). 327, 319-323.
Wik, M. and Renberg, I.: 1991, Ambio. 20, 289-292.
Wik, M. and Renberg, I.: 1991, Hydrobiogia. 214, 85-90.
Xie, Y., Hopke, P.K. and Wienke, D.: 1994a, Environ. Sci. Tech. 28, 1921-1928.
Xie, Y., Hopke, P.K., Casuccio, G. and Henderson, B.: 1994b, Aerosol Sci. Tech. 21, 210-218.
Xie, Y., Hopke, P.K., Casuccio, G. and Henderson, B.: 1994c, Aerosol.Sci.Tech. 20, 161-168.
Young, B.D., Bryson, A.W. and Vanvliet, B.M.: 1990, Powder Tech. 63, 157-168.
Zhang, X.Q., McMurry, P.H., Hering, S.V. and Casuccio, G.S.: 1993, Atmos. Environ. Part A-General Topics. 27, 1593-1607.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Watt, J. Automated Characterisation of Individual Carbonaceous Fly-Ash Particles by Computer Controlled Scanning Electron Microscopy: Analytical Methods and Critical Review of Alternative Techniques. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 106, 309–327 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005045529848
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005045529848