Abstract
The study of Conduct Disorder (CD) has primarily been limited to boys. The lack of research resulted from a premise that CD in girls was rare. However, CD in girls is a relatively common psychiatric diagnosis, and appears to be associated with several serious outcomes, such as Antisocial Personality Disorder and early pregnancy. Understanding gender differences in the course and severity of CD may lead to important information about etiology. Empirical studies on precursors, developmental course, risk factors and treatment for CD in girls are reviewed, while highlighting similarities and differences between girls and boys. Generally, CD symptoms in girls are stable. Precursors to CD in girls probably include Oppositional Defiant Disorder and temperamental factors, but also may include certain negative cognitions. What distinguishes CD in girls is the high risk they have to develop comorbid conditions, especially internalizing disorders. Risk factors for CD in girls partly overlap with those known for boys, but some factors appear to be highly salient for girls. Finally, there may be some significant effects of gender on treatment efficacy. Implications of these findings for future etiologic research are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Abikoff, H., Courtney, M., Pelham, W. E., & Koplewicz, H. S. (1994). Teacher's ratings of disruptive behaviors: The influence of halo effects. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 519–533.
Achenbach, T. M., Howell, M. S., McConaughy, S. H., & Stanger, C. (1995). Six-year predictors of problems in a national sample: III. Transitions to young adult syndromes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 658–669.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual for mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Anderson, E. R. (1993). Analyzing change in short term longitudinal research using cohort-sequential designs. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 929–940.
Angold, A., & Rutter, M. (1992). Effects of age and pubertal status on depression in a large clinical sample. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 5–28.
Biederman, J., Faraone, S., Milberger, S., Curtis, S., Chen, L., Marrs, A., Ouelette, C., Moore, P., & Spencer, T. (1996). Predictors of persistence and remission of ADHD into adolescence: Results from a four-year prospective follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 343–351.
Bird, H. R., Gould, M. S., & Staghezza, B. (1993). Patterns of diagnostic comorbidity in a community sample of children aged 9 through 16 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 361–368.
Bjerregaard, B., & Smith, C. (1993). Gender differences in gang participation, delinquency and substance use. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 9, 329–355.
Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, M. J., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992). Do girls manipulate and boys fight? Developmental trends in regard to direct and indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 18, 117–127.
Bohman, M., Cloninger, C. R., Von Knorring, A. L., & Sigvardsson, S. (1984). An adoption study of somatoform disorders. III. Cross-fostering analysis and genetic relationship to alcoholism and criminality. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 872–878.
Breen, M. J., & Barkley, R. A. (1988). Child psychopathology and parenting stress in girls and boys having attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 13, 265–280.
Brestan, E.V., & Eyberg, S. M. (1998). Empirically supported psychosocial treatments of conduct-disordered children and adolescents: 29 years, 82 studies, and 5,272 kids. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 180–189.
Bybee, J. (1998). The emergence of gender differences in guilt during adolescence. In J. Bybee (Ed.), Guilt and children (pp. 113–123). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Cadoret, R. J. (1978). Psychopathology in adopted away offspring of biologic parents with antisocial behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 176–184.
Cairns, R. B., & Cairns, B. D. (1984). Predicting aggressive patterns in girls and boys: A developmental study. Aggressive Behavior, 10, 227–242.
Cairns, R. B., Peterson, G., & Neckerman, H. J. (1988). Report from the social development laboratory, Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 17, 298–309.
Carlson, C. L., Tamm, L., & Gaub, M. (1997). Gender differences in children with ADHD, ODD, and co-occurring ADHD/ODD identified in a school population. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1706–1714.
Caspi, A., Henry, B., McGee, R. O., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1995). Temperamental origins of child and adolescent behavior problems: From age three to age fifteen. Child Development, 66, 55–58.
Caspi, A., Lynam, D., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1993). Unraveling girls' delinquency: Biological, dispositional, and contextual contributions to adolescent misbehavior. Developmental Psychology, 29, 19–30.
Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (1991). Individual differences are accentuated during periods of social change: The sample case of girls at puberty. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 157–168.
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Krueger, R. F., & Schmutte, P. S. (1994). Are some people crime-prone? Replications of the personality-crime relationship across countries, genders, races and methods. Criminology, 32, 163–194.
Chamberlain, P., & Reid, J. B. (1994). Differences in risk factors and adjustment for male and female delinquents in treatment foster care. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 3, 23–40.
Cloninger, C. R., Reich, T., & Gize, S. B. (1975). The multifactorial model of disease transmission: II. Sex differences in the formal transmission of sociopathy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 127, 11–22.
Cohen, N. J. (1989). Sex differences in child psychiatric out patients: Cognitive, personality, and behavioral characteristics. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 20, 113–121.
Cohen, P., Cohen, J., Kasen, S., Velez, C. N., Hartman, C., Johnson, J., Rojas, M., Brook, J., and Strevning, E. L. (1993). An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence. I. Age-and gender-specific prevalence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 851–867.
Cole, P. M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1992). Emotional dysregulation in disruptive behavior disorders. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth (Eds.), Development perspectives on depression, (pp. 173–209). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Crick, N. R. (1995). Relational aggression: The role of intent attributions, feelings of distress, and provocation type. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 313–322.
Devine, D., Long, P., & Forehand, R. (1993). A prospective study of adolescent sexual activity: Description, correlates, and predictors. Advances in Behavior Research Therapy, 15, 185–209.
Dodge, K. A. (1980). Social cognition and children's aggressive behavior. Child Development, 51, 162–170.
Downey, G., & Fledman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1327–1343.
Downey, G., Lebolt, A., & Rincon, C. (1995). Rejection sensitivity and children's interpersonal difficulties. Unpublished manuscript. Columbia University.
Downey, G., Freitas, A. L., Michaelis, B., & Khouri, H. (1998). The self-fulfilling prophecy in close relationships: Rejection sensitivity and rejection by romantic partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 545–560.
Dumas, J. E., & Wahler, R. G. (1985). Indiscriminate mothering as a contextual factor in aggressive-oppositional child behavior: “Damned if you do and damned if you don't.” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 13, 1–17.
DuRant, R. H., Cadenhead, C., Pendergrast, R. A., Slavens, G. G., & Linder, C. W. (1994). Factors associated with the use of violence among urban black adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 612–617.
Elliott, D. S. (1994). Serious violent offenders: Onset, developmental course, and termination. Criminology, 32, 1–21.
Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Ageton, S. S. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Emery, R. E., & O'Leary, K. D. (1984). Marital discord and child behavior problems in a nonclinic sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12, 411–420.
Eronen, M., Hakola, P., & Tiihonen, J. (1996). Mental disorder and homicidal behavior in Finland. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 497–501.
Fagot, B. I. (1984). The consequents of problem behavior in toddler children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12, 383–396.
Fagot, B. I., & Leve, L. D. (1998). Teacher ratings of externalizing behavior at school entry for boys and girls: Similar early predictors and different correlates. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 555–566.
Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Keenan, K., & Tsuang, M. T. (1991a). A family-genetic study of girls with DSM-III Attention Deficit Disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 112–117.
Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Keenan, K., & Tsuang, M. T. (1991b). Separation of DSM-III attention deficit disorder and conduct disorder: evidence from a family-genetic study of American child psychiatric patients. Psychological Medicine, 21, 109–121.
Farrington, D. P. (1987). Epidemiology. In H. C. Quay (Ed.), Handbook of juvenile delinquency (pp. 33–61). New York: Wiley.
Feldman, S., & Downey, G. (1994). Rejection sensitivity as a mediator of the impact of childhood exposure to family violence on adult attachment. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 231–247.
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Lynskey, M. T. (1994). The comorbidities of adolescent problem behaviors: A latent class model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 339–354.
Fleming, J. P., Kellam, S. G., & Brown, C. H. (1982). Early predictors of age at first use of alcohol, marijuana, and cigarettes. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 9, 285–303.
Fréchette, M., & Le Blanc, M. (1987). Delinquances et delinquants. Quebec, Canada: G. Morin.
Galen, B. R., & Underwood, M. K. (1997). A developmental investigation of social aggression among children. Developmental Psychology, 33, 589–600.
Garber, J., Quiggle, N. L., Panak, W., & Dodge, K. A. (1991). Aggression and depression in children: Comorbidity, specificity and social cognitive processing. In D. Cicchetti, & S. L. Toth (Eds.), Internalizing and externalizing expressions of dysfunction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (1996). Coming of age too early: Pubertal influences on girls' vulnerability to psychological distress. Child Development, 67, 3386–3400.
Gittelman, R., Mannuzza, S., Shenker, R., & Bonagura, N. (1985). Hyperactive boys almost grown up. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 937–947.
Goodman, S. H., & Kohlsdorf, B. (1994). The developmental psychopathology of conduct problems: Gender issues. In D. C. Fowles (Ed.), Progress in experimental, personality, and psychopathology research. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Goodyer, I., & Cooper, P. J. (1993). A community study of depression in adolescent girls. II: The clinical features of identified disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 374–380.
Graber, J. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., and Brooks, J. (1997). Is psychopathology associated with the timing of pubertal development? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1768–1776.
Griesler, P. C., Kandel, D. B., & Davies, M. (1998). Maternal smoking in pregnancy, child behavior problems, and adolescent smoking. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 8, 159–185.
Hack, M., Breslau, N., Aram, D., Weissman, B., Klein, N., & Borawski-Clark, E. (1992). The effect of very low birth weight and social risk on neurocognitive abilities at school age. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 13, 412–420.
Hartung, C., & Widiger, T. (1998). Gender differences in the diagnosis of mental disorders: Conclusions and controversies of the DSM-IV. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 260–278.
Hawkins, J. D., Von Cleve, E., & Catalano, R. F. (1991). Reducing early childhood aggression: Results of a primary prevention program. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 208–217.
Hayward, C., Killen, J. D., Wilson, D. M., Hammer, L. D., Litt, I. F., Kraemer, H. C., Haydel, F., Varady, A., & Taylor, C. B. (1997). Psychiatric risk associated with early puberty in adolescent girls. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 255–262.
Huesmann, L. R., & Eron, L. (1984). Cognitive processes and the persistence of aggressive behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 10, 243–251.
Huizinga, D. (1995). Developmental sequences in delinquency: Dynamic typologies. In L. J. Crockett & A. C. Crouter (Eds.), Pathways through adolescence: Individual development in relation to social contexts. The Penn State Series on Child & Adolescent Development. (pp. 15–34). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Jessor, R., & Jessor, S. (1977). Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. New York: Academic Press.
Jessor, R., Donovan, J. E., & Widmer, K. (1980). Psychosocial factors in adolescent alcohol and drug use: The 1978 National Sample Study, and the 1974–1978 Panel Study (Unpublished final report). Boulder: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado.
Joffe, R. T., Offord, D. R., & Boyle, M. H. (1988). Ontario child health study: Suicidal behavior in youth aged 12–16 years. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1420–1423.
Jouriles, E. N., Murphy, C. M., & O'Leary, K. D. (1989). Interspousal aggression, marital discord, and child problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 453–455.
Kavanagh, K., & Hops, H. (1994). Good girls? Bad Boys? Gender and development as contexts for diagnosis and treatment. In T. H. Ollendick & R. J. Prinz (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 16, pp. 45–79). New York: Plenum Press.
Keenan, K., & Shaw, D. S. (1997). Developmental and social influences on young girls' early problem behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 95–113.
Keenan, K., Shaw, D. S., Delliquadri, E., Giovannelli, J., & Walsh, B. (1998). Evidence for the continuity of early problem behaviors: Application of a developmental model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 443–454.
Kovacs, M., Krol, R., & Voti, L. (1994). Early onset psychopathology and the risk for teenage pregnancy among clinically referred girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 106–113.
Lahey, B. B., McBurnett, K., & Loeber, R. (in press). Are attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder developmental precursors to conduct disorder? In M. Lewis & A. Sameroff (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd ed.). New York: Plenum Press.
Lahey, B. B., Piacentini, J. C., McBurnett, K., Stone, P., Hartdagen, S., & Hynd, G. (1988). Psychopathology in the parents of children with conduct disorder and hyperactivity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 163–70.
Lahey, B. B., Schwab-Stone, M., Goodman, S., Rathouz, P., Miller, T. L., Canino, G., Bird, H., & Jensen, P. (1998). Age and gender differences in oppositional behavior and conduct problems: A cross-sectional household study of middle childhood and adolescence. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Lee, V. E., Burkam, D. T., Zimiles, H., & Ladewski, B. (1994). Family-structure and its effect on behavioral and emotional problems in young adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescents, 4, 405–437.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., Rhode, P., Gotlib, I. H., & Hops, H. (1994). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Psychosocial risk factors for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 302–315.
Links, P. S., Boyle, M. H., & Offord, D. R. (1989). The prevalence of emotional disorder in children. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 85–91.
Loeber, R. (1988). The natural histories of conduct problems, delinquency, and associated substance use: Evidence for developmental progressions. In B. B. Lahey & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 73–124). New York: Plenum Press.
Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Van Kammen, W. B. (1997). Antisocial behavior and mental health problems: Risk factors in childhood and adolescence. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Loeber, R., Green, S. M., Keenan, K., & Lahey, B. B. (1995). Which boys will fare worse? Early predictors of the onset of conduct disorder in a six-year longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 499–509.
Loeber, R., & Keenan, K. (1994). Interaction between conduct disorder and its comorbid conditions: Effects of age and gender. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 497–523.
Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1986). Family factors as correlates and predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and justice, (Vol. 7, pp. 29–149). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Maccoby, E. E. (1986). Social groupings in childhood: Their relationship to prosocial and antisocial behavior in boys and girls. In D. Olweus, J. Block, & M. Radke-Yarrow (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior: Research, theories, and issues (pp. 263–284). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Maguin, E., & Loeber, R. (1996). Academic performance and delinquency? In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice (Vol. 20, pp. 145–264). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mahoney, A., Jouriles, N. E., & Scavone, J. (1997). Marital adjustment, marital discord over childrearing, and child behavior problems: Moderating effects of child age. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 415–423.
Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., Bonagura, N., Malloy, P., Giampino, T. L., & Addalli, D. A. (1991) Hyperactive boys almost grown up. V. Replications of psychiatric status. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1073–1079.
McCord, J. (1979). Some child-rearing antecedents of criminal behavior in adult men. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1477–1486.
McDermott, J. F. (Ed.). (1998). Practice parameters. Supplement to Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(10).
McGee, R., Feehan, M., & Williams, S. (1992). Comorbidity of anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence. In G. D. Burrows, M. Roth, & R. Noyes, (Eds.), Handbook of anxiety (Vol. 5, chap. 18). Elsevier.
McGee, R., & Stanton, W. R. (1992). Sources of distress among New Zealand adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 999–1010.
Mitchell, S., & Rosa, P. (1981). Boyhood behavior problems as precursors of criminality: A fifteen year follow-up study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 22, 19–33.
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-cycle-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychology Review, 100, 674–701.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424–443.
Nottelmann, E. D., & Jensen, P. S. (1995). Comorbidity of disorders in children and adolescents. In T. H. Ollendick & R. J. Prinz (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (pp. 109–155). New York: Plenum Press.
O'Donnell, J., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Abbott, R. D., & Day, L. E. (1995). Preventing school failure, drug use, and delinquency among low-income children: Long-term intervention in elementary schools. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65, 87–100.
Offord, D. R., Adler, R. J., & Boyle, M. H. (1986). Prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of conduct disorder. American Journal of Social Psychiatry, 4, 272–278.
Offord, D. R., and Bennett, K. J. (1994). Conduct Disorder: Long-term outcomes and intervention effectiveness. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 1069–1078.
Offord, D. R., Boyle, M. H., Szatmari, P., Rae-Grant, N. I., Links, P. S., Cadman, D. T., Byles, J. A., Crawford, J. W., Munroe, H., Byrne, C., Thomas, H., & Woodward, C. A. (1987). Ontario child health study: II. Six-month prevalence of disorder and rates of service utilization. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 832–836.
Ogle, R. S., Maier-Katkin, D., & Bernard, T. J. (1995). A theory of homicidal behavior among women. Criminology, 33, 173–193.
Olson, S. L., & Hoza, B. (1993). Preschool developmental antecedents of conduct problems in children beginning school. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 60–67.
Orvaschel, H. (1985). Psychiatric interviews suitable for use in research with children and adolescents. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 737–744.
Pajer, K. A. (1998). What happens to “Bad” girls? A review of the adult outcomes of antisocial adolescent girls. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 862–870.
Paternite, C. E., Loney, J., & Roberts, M. A. (1995). External validation of oppositional defiant disorder and attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 453–471.
Patterson, G. R. (1982). A social learning approach: Vol. 3. Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
Patterson, G. R., DeBaryshe, B. D., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 44, 329–335.
Pepler, D. J. (1995). A developmental profile of risks for aggressive girls. Unpublished manuscript, York University, Toronto, Canada.
Petersen, A. C., Compas, B. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., Stemmler, M., Ey, E., & Grant, K. E. (1993). Depression in adolescence. American Psychologist, 48, 155–168.
Petersen, A. C., Sarigiani, P. A., & Kennedy, R. E. (1991). Adolescent depression: Why more girls? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 247–271.
Prior, M., Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Oberklaid, F. (1993). Sex differences in psychological adjustment from infancy to 8 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 291–304.
Pulkkinen, L. (1983). Predictability of criminal behavior. Psykologia, 18, 3–10.
Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Low resting heart rate at age 3 years predisposes to aggression at age 11 years: Evidence from the Mauritius Child Health Project. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1457–1464.
Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Williams, M. (1990). Relationships between central and autonomic measures of arousal at age 15 years and criminality at age 24 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 1003–1007.
Reid, J. B., & Patterson, G. R. (1991). Early prevention and intervention with conduct problems: A social interactional model for the integration of research and practice. In G. Stoner, M. R. Shinn, & H. M. Walker (Eds.), Interventions for achievement and behavior problems (pp. 715–739). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Richters, J. E., & Martinez, P. E. (1993). Violent communities, family choices, and children's chances: An algorithm for improving the odds. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 609–627.
Rierdan, J., & Koff, E. (1993). Developmental variables in relation to depressive symptoms in adolescent girls. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 485–496.
Robins, L. N. (1966). Deviant children grown up: A sociological and psychiatric study of sociopathic personality. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Robins, L. N. (1986). The consequences of Conduct Disorder in girls. In D. Olweus, J. Black, & M. Radke-Yarrow (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior: Research, theories, and issues. New York: Academic Press.
Robins, L. N. (1991). Conduct disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Profession, 32, 193–212.
Robins, L. N., & Pryzbeck, T. R. (1985). Age of onset of drug use as a factor in drug and other disorders. National Institute of Drug Abuse Research Monograph Series, 56, 178–192.
Robins, L. N., Tripp, J., & Pryzbeck, T. R. (1991). Antisocial Personality. In L. N. Robins & D. A. Regier (Eds.), Psychiatric disorders in America: The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. New York: Free Press.
Rogeness, G. A., Cepeda, C., Macedo, C. A., Fischer, C., & Harris, W. R. (1990). Differences in heart rate and blood pressure in children with Conduct Disorder, Major Depression, and Separation Anxiety. Psychiatry Research, 33, 199–206.
Seidman, L. J., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Weber, W., Mennin, D., & Jones, J. (1997). A pilot study of neuropsychological function in girls with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 366–373.
Serbin, L. A., Peters, P. L., McAffer, V. J., & Schwartzman, A. E. (1991). Childhood aggression and withdrawal as predictors of adolescent pregnancy, early parenthood, and environmental risk for the next generation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 23, 318–331.
Shaffer, D. (1988). The epidemiology of teen suicide: An examination of risk factors. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 49, 36–41.
Silverthorn, P., & Frick, P. J. (in press). Developmental pathways to antisocial behavior: The delayed-onset pathway in girls. Development and Psychopathology.
Sprich-Buckminster, S., Biederman, J., Milberger, S., Faraone, S. V., & Lehman, B. K. (1993). Are perinatal complications relevant to the manifestation of ADD?: Issues of comorbidity and familiality. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 1032–1037.
Stattin, H., & Magnusson, D. (1990). Pubertal maturation in female development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Szatmari, P., Boyle, M. H., & Offord, D. R. (1993). Familial aggregation of emotional and behavioral problems of childhood in the general population. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1398–1403.
Tolan, P.H., & Thomas, P. (1995). The implications of age of onset for delinquency risk II: Longitudinal data. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 157–181.
Tremblay, R. E., Masse, B., Perron, D., Le Blanc, M., Schwartzman, A. E., & Ledingham, J. E. (1992). Early disruptive behavior, poor school achievement, delinquent behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 64–72.
Underwood, M. K., Kupersmidt, J. B., & Coie, J. D. (1996). Childhood peer sociometric status and aggression as predictors of adolescent childbearing. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 6, 201–223.
Verhulst, F. C., & Vander Ende, J. (1991). Four-year follow-up of teacher-reported problem behaviours. Psychological Medicine, 21, 965–977.
Wakschlag, L. S., Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Green, S. M., & Leventhal, B. L. (1997). Maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with increased risk for Conduct Disorder in their offspring. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 670–676.
Walker, J. L., Lahey, B. B., Russo, M. F., Frick, P. J., Christ, M. A., McBurnett, K., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Green, S. (1991). Anxiety, inhibition, and conduct disorder in children: I. Relations to social impairment and sensation seeking. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 187–191.
Webster-Stratton, C. (1996). Early-onset conduct problems: Does gender make a difference? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 540–551.
Windle, M. (1990). A longitudinal study of antisocial behaviors in early adolescence as predictors of late adolescent substance use: Gender and ethnic group differences. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 86–91.
Windle, M. (1994). Co-existing problems and alcoholic family risk among adolescents. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 708, 157–164.
Zahn-Waxler, C. (1993). Warriors and worriers: Gender and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 79–89.
Zahn-Waxler, C., Cole, P. M., & Barrett, K. C. (1991). Guilt and empathy: Sex differences and implications for the development of depression. In J. Garber & K. A. Dodge (Eds.), The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (pp. 243–272). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Zahn-Waxler, C., Iannotti, R. J., Cummings, E. M., & Denham, S. (1990). Antecedents of problem behaviors in children of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 271–291.
Zoccolillo, M. (1992). Co-occurrence of Conduct Disorder and its adult outcomes with Depressive and Anxiety Disorders—A review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 547–556.
Zoccolillo, M. (1993). Gender and the development of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 65–78.
Zoccolillo, M., Pickles, A., Quinton, D., & Rutter, M. (1992). The outcome of Conduct Disorder: Implications for defining adult personality disorder and Conduct Disorder. Psychological Medicine, 22, 1–16.
Zoccolillo, M., & Rogers, K. (1991). Characteristics and outcome of hospitalized adolescent girls with CD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 973–981.
Zoccolillo, M., Tremblay, R., & Vitaro, F. (1996). DSM-III-R and DSM-III criteria for conduct disorder in preadolescent girls: Specific but insensitive. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 461–470.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Keenan, K., Loeber, R. & Green, S. Conduct Disorder in Girls: A Review of the Literature. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2, 3–19 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021811307364
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021811307364