Abstract
Soil insecticide barriers have been the single most important tool for subterranean termite control in the last half century, but limitations with current soil termiticides have provided the impetus to look for alternatives in recent years. One such alternative is the monitoring--baiting programme. Monitoring stations to detect termites are placed in the soil surrounding a structure. Once termites are found in the stations, monitoring devices are replaced with slow-acting baits such as the chitin synthesis inhibitor, hexaflumuron. Field studies have indicated that termite colonies were eliminated using less than 1 g of hexaflumuron. After the elimination, monitoring resumes and bait is applied if new termite activity is detected. The monitoring and baiting procedure form the basis for an ongoing programme to protect structures from subterranean termite infestation. Although the cost--benefit model developed for agricultural integrated pest management cannot be applied directly to termite control, the underlying concept for using a cost-effective approach remains the same. The benefits of the monitoring--baiting programme over conventional soil treatment are a reduction in pesticide applied per unit and the elimination of termite populations near structures, resulting in the reduction of liability and damage potential. It is expected that the data management system when used in conjunction with the monitoring--baiting programme will provide a database to improve its cost-effectiveness continuously.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ballard, J. (1997) Termite baiting 101. Pest Control 65(2), 30–40.
Beard, R.L. (1974) Termite biology and bait-block method of control. Connecticut Agricult. Exp. Sta. Bull. 748.
Chen, J. and Henderson, G. (1996) Determination of feeding preference of Formosan subterranean termite (Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki) for some amino acid additives. J. Chem. Ecol. 22, 2359–69.
DeMark, J.J., Benson, E.P., Zungoli, P.A. and Kard, B.M. (1995) Evaluation of hexaflumuron for termite control in the southeast U.S. Down to Earth 50, 20–6.
Dent, D.R. (1992) Scientific programme management in collaborative research. In P.T. Haskell (ed.) Research collaboration in European IPM systems, pp. 64–76. Farnham: BCPC.
Dent, D.R. (1995) Integrated Pest Management. London: Chapman & Hall.
Doppelreiter, V.H. and Korioth, M. (1981) Entwicklungshemmung durch Diflubenzuron bei den Bodentermiten Heterotermes indicola und Reticulitermes flavipes. Z. Angew. Entomol. 91, 131–7.
Ebeling, W. and Pence, R.J. (1957) Relation of particle size on the penetation of subterranean termites through barriers of sand or cinders. J. Econ. Entomol. 50, 690–2.
Edwards, R. and Mill, A.E. (1986) Termites in Buildings. Their Biology and Control. East Grinstead: Rentokil Limited.
Esenther, G.R. and Beal, R.H. (1974) Attractant-mirex bait suppresses activity of Reticulitermes spp. J. Econ. Entomol. 67, 85–8.
Esenther, G.R. and Beal, R.H. (1978) Insecticidal baits on field plot perimeters suppress Reticulitermes. J. Econ. Entomol. 71, 604–7.
Esenther, G.R. and Gray, D.E. (1968) Subterranean termite studies in southern Ontario. Can. Entomol. 100, 827–34.
Faragalla, A.A., Badawi, A.I. and Dabbour, A.I. (1985) Field evaluation of the effects of the juvenile hormone analogs (JHA’s) and diflubenzuron (Dimilin) on termites of the genus Microcerotermes (Isoptera: Termitidae) in the central region of Saudi Arabia. Sociobiology 11, 29–37.
Forschler, B.T. (1996) Baiting Reticulitermes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) field colonies with Abamectin and zinc borate-treated cellulose in Georgia. Sociobiology 28, 459–84.
Forschler, B.T. and Ryder, J.C. (1996) Subterranean termite, Reticulitermes spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), colony response to baiting with hexaflumuron using a prototype commercial termite baiting system. J. Entomol. Sci. 31, 143–51.
French, J.R.J. (1991) Baits and foraging behavior of Australian species of Coptotermes. Sociobiology 19, 171–86.
Fujii, J.K. (1975) Effects of an entomogenous nematode, Neoaplectana carpocapsae Weiser, on the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, with ecological and biological studies on C. formosanus. PhD dissertation, University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Fujii, Y., Imamura, Y., Iwatsubo, E. and Yamamoto, S. (1997) Control of Termite Attack Using a Trapping Method and Acoustic Emission (AE) Monitoring. A Case Study at an Electric Power Plant. Stockholm: International Research Group on Wood Preservation.
Grace, J.K. (1990a) Mark-Recapture studies with Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 16, 297–303.
Grace, J.K. (1990b) Oral toxicity of barium metaborate to the eastern subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Entomol. Sci. 25, 112–16.
Grace, J.K. and Yamamoto, R.T. (1994) Simulation of remedial borate treatments intended to reduce attack on Douglas-fir lumber by the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 87, 1547–54.
Grace, J.K., Abdallay, A. and Farr, K.R. (1989) Eastern subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) foraging territories and populations in Toronto. Can. Entomol. 121, 551–6.
Grace, J.K., Yates, J.R., Tome, C.H.M. and Oshiro, R.J. (1996a) Termite-resistant construction: use of a stainless steel mesh to exclude Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 28, 365–72.
Grace, J.K., Tome, C.H.M., Shelton, T.G. and Oshiro, R.J. (1996b) Baiting studies and considerations with Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Hawaii. Sociobiology 28, 511–20.
Hajjar, N.P. and Casida, J.E. (1978) Insecticidal benzoylphenyl ureas: structure activity relationships as chitin synthesis inhibitors. Science 200, 1499–500.
Hänel, H. (1983) Preliminary field tests on the use of Metarhizium anisopliae for the control of Nasutitermes exitiosus (Hill) (Isoptera: Termitidae). Bull. Entomol. Res. 73, 305–13.
Haverty, M.I. (1977) The proportion of soldiers in termite colonies: a list and a bibliography (Isoptera). Sociobiology 2, 199–216.
Haverty, M.I., Su, N.-Y., Tamashiro, M. and Yamamoto, R. (1989) Concentration-dependent presoldier induction and feeding deterrency: potential of two insect growth regulators for remedial control of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 82, 1370–4.
Henderson, G. and Forschler, B.T. (1996) Termite bait screening using naturally-infested trees. In K.B. Wildey (ed.) Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Insect Pests in Urban Environment, pp. 449–58. Exeter: BPC Wheaton Ltd.
Holt, A.R. (1996) Update on improving building codes vs. termites in St. John’s county. PCO August, 7.
Hrdy, I. (1973) Effect of juvenoids on termites and honeybees. In Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of the IUSSI, pp. 158–61. London.
Hrdy, I. and Krecek, J. (1972) Development of superfluous soldiers induced by juvenile hormone analogues in ther termite, Reticulitermes lucifugus santonensis. Insect. Soc. 19, 105–9.
Hrdy, I., Krecek, J. and Zuskova, Z. (1979) Juvenile hormone analogues: effects on the soldier caste differentiation in termites (Isoptera). Vestn. Cesk. Spol. Zool. 43, 260–9.
Imamura, Y. and Fujii, Y. (1995) Analysis of feeding activities of termites by AE monitoring of infested wood. Mokuzaihozon 21, 11–19.
Jones, S.C. (1984) Evaluation of two insect growth regulators for the bait-block method of subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) control. J. Econ. Entomol. 77, 1086–91.
Jones, S.C. (1989) Field evaluation of fenoxycarb as a bait toxicant for subterranean termite control. Sociobiology 15, 33–41.
Jones, S.C. (1990) Delineation of Heterotermes aureus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) foraging territories in a Sonoran desert grassland. Environ. Entomol. 19, 1047–54.
Jones, S.C. (1991) Field evaluation of boron as a bait toxicant for control of Heterotermes aureus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 19, 187–209.
La Fage, J.P. (1986) Subterranean termites: a personal perspective. In Proceedings of the National Conference on Urban Entomology, pp. 45–57. College Park, MD.
Lai, P.Y. (1977) Biology and ecology of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus, and its susceptibility to the entomogenous fungi, Beauveria bassiana and Metarrhizium anisopliae. PhD, dissertation, University of Hawaii, Honolulu.
Lai, P.Y., Tamashiro, M. and Fujii, J.K. (1982) Pathogenicity of six strains of entomogenous fungi to Coptotermes formosanus. J. Invert. Pathol. 39, 1–5.
Lebrun, D. (1967) La determination des castes du termite a cou jaune (Calotermes flavicollis Fabr.) Bull. Biol. France Belg. 101, 139–217.
Lenz, M. (1976) The dependence of hormone effects in termite caste determination on external factors. In M. Lüscher (ed.) Phase and caste determination in insects. Endocrine aspects, pp. 73–89. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Lenz, M. and Runko, S. (1994) Protection of buildings, other structures and materials in ground contact from attack by subterranean termites (Isoptera) with a physical barrier-a fine mesh of high grade stainless steel. Sociobiology 24, 1–16.
Lenz, M., Gleeson, P.V., Miller, L.R. and Abbey, H.M. (1996) How Predictive are Laboratory Experiments for Assessing the Effects of Chitin Synthesis Inhibitor (CSI) on Field Colonies of Termites?-A Comparison of Laboratory and Field Data from Australian Mound-building Species of Termite. Stockholm: International Research Group on Wood Preservation.
Lewis, V.R., Haverty, M.I., Carver, D.S. and Fouche, C. (1996) Field comparison of sand or insecticide barriers for control of Reticulitermes spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) infestation in homes in northern California. Sociobiology 28, 327–35.
Lüscher, M. (1958) Ueber die Entstehung der Soldaten bei Termiten. Rev. Suisse Zool. 65, 372–6.
Lüscher, M. (1969) Die Bedeutung des Juvenilhormons fur die Differenzierung der Soldaten dei der Termite Kalotermes flavicollis. In Proceedings of the Sixth Congress of the IUSSI, pp. 165–70. Bern.
Lüscher, M. and Springhetti, A. (1960) Untersuchungen über die Bedeutung der Corpora Allata fü r die Differenzierung der Kasten bei der Termite Kalotermes flavicollis. J. Insect Physiol. 5, 190–212.
Mampe, C.D. (1994) Reducing termite retreatment. Pest Control 62, 4.
Mauldin, J.K. and Beal, R.H. (1989) Entomogenous nematodes for control of subterranean termites, Reticulitermes spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 82, 1638–42.
Mumford, J.D. and Norton, G.A. (1984) Economics of decision making in pest management. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 29, 157–74.
Myles, T.G. (1996) Development and evaluation of a transmissible coating for control of subterranean termites. Sociobiology 28, 373–457.
Myles, T.G., Abdally, A. and Sisson, J. (1994) 21st century termite control. Pest Control Technol. 22, 64–72, 108.
Ostaff, D. and Gray, D.E. (1975) Termite (Isoptera) suppression with toxic baits. Can. Entomol. 107, 1321–5.
Paton, R. and Miller, L.R. (1980) Control of Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt (Isoptera: Mastotermitidae) with mirex baits. Austr. For. Res. 10, 249–58.
Pawson, B.M. and Gold, R.E. (1996) Evaluation of baits for termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Texas. Sociobiology 28, 485–510.
Pinto, L.J. (1981) The Structural Pest Control Industry. Description and Impact on the Nation. Vienna, VA: National Pest Control Association.
Potter, M.F. (1997) Termite baits: a status report. Pest Control Technol. 25, 24–6.
Randall, M. and Doody, T.C. (1934) Poison dusts. I. Treatments with poisonous dusts. In C.A. Kofoid (ed.) Termites and termite control, pp. 463–76. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Reinhard, J., Hertel, H. and Kaib, M. (1997) Systematic search for food in the subterranean termite Reticulitermes santonensis De Feytaud (Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae). Insectes. Soc. 44, 147–58.
Robinson, W.H. (1996) Integrated pest management in the urban entomology. Am. Entomol. 42, 76–8.
Robson, S.K., Lesniak, M.G., Kothandapani, R.V., Traniello, J.F.A., Thorne, B.L. and Fourcassie, V. (1996) Nonrandom search geometry in subterranean termites. Naturwissenschaften 82, 526–8.
Rust, M.K., Haagsma, K. and Nyugen, J. (1996) Enhancing foraging of western subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in arid environments. Sociobiology 28, 275–86.
Scheffrahn, R.H., Robbins, W.P., Busey, P., Su, N.-Y. and Mueller, R.K. (1993) Evaluations of a novel, hand-held, acoustic emissions detector to monitor termites (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae) in wood. J. Econ. Entomol. 86, 1720–9.
Scheffrahn, R.H., Su, N.-Y. and Busey, P. (1997) Laboratory and field evaluations of selected chemical treatments for control of drywood termites (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 90, 492–502.
Smith, J.L. and Rust, M.K. (1990) Tunneling response and mortality of the western subterranean termite, Reticulitermes hesperus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) to soil treated with insecticides. J. Econ. Entomol. 83, 1395–401.
Smith, B.C. and Zungoli, P.A. (1995) Rigid board insulation in South Carolina: its impact on damage, inspection and control of termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Florida Entomol. 78, 507–15.
Sornnuwat, Y., Tsunoda, K., Yoshimura, T., Takahashi, M. and Vongkaluang, C. (1996) Foraging populations of Coptotermes gestroi (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in an urban area. J. Econ. Entomol. 89, 1485–90.
Staples, J. and Milner, R. (1996) Metarhizium anisopliae as a mycotermiticide–laboratory behavioral asssay. In K.B. Wildey (ed.) Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Insect Pests in Urban Environment, p. 493. Exeter: BPC Wheatons Ltd.
Su, N.-Y. (1994) Field evaluation of hexaflumuron bait for population suppression of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 87, 389–97.
Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1988a) Foraging population and territory of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in an urban environment. Sociobiology 14, 353–9.
Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1988b) Toxicity and feeding deterrency of a dihaloalkyl arylsulfone biocide, A-9248 against the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 81, 850–4.
Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1988c) Toxicity and lethal time of N-ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamide against two subterranean termite species (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Florida Entomol. 71, 73–8.
Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1990) Economically important termites in the United States and their control. Sociobiology 17, 77–94.
Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1991) Laboratory evaluation of two slow-acting toxicants against Formosan and eastern subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 84, 170–5.
Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1992) Penetration of sized-particle barriers by field populations of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 85, 2275–8.
Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1993) Laboratory evaluation of two chitin synthesis inhibitors, hexaflumuron and diflubenzuron, as bait toxicants against the Formosan subterranean termite and eastern subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 86, 1453–7.
Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1996) A review of the evaluation criteria for bait-toxicant efficacy against field colonies of subterranean termites (Isoptera). Sociobiology 28, 521–30.
Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1996b) Comparative effects of two chitin synthesis inhibitors, hexaflumuron and lufenuron, in a bait matrix against subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 89, 1156–60.
Su, N.-Y. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1996c) Fate of subterranean termite colonies (isoptera) after bait applications–an update and review. Sociobiology 27, 253–75.
Su, N.-Y., Tamashiro, M., Yates, J.R. and Haverty, M.I. (1982) Effect of behavior on the evaluation of insecticides for prevention of or remedial control of the Formosan subterranean termite. J. Econ. Entomol. 75, 188–93.
Su, N.-Y., Tamashiro, M. and Haverty, M.I. (1985) Effects of three insect growth regulators, feeding substrates and colony origin on survival and presoldier production of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 78, 1259–63.
Su, N.-Y., Ban, P.M. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1991a) Evaluation of twelve dye markers for population studies of the eastern and Formosan subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 19, 349–62.
Su, N.-Y., Scheffrahn, R.H. and Ban, P.M. (1991b) Uniform size particle barrier: a physical exclusion device against subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 84, 912–16.
Su, N.-Y., Ban, P.M. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1991c) Population suppression of field colonies of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) by dihaloalkyl arylsulfone (A-9248) baits. J. Econ. Entomol. 84, 1524–31.
Su, N.-Y., Ban, P.M. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1993) Foraging populations and territories of the eastern subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in southeastern Florida. Environ. Entomol. 22, 1113–17.
Su, N.-Y., Scheffrahn, R.H. and Ban, P.M. (1995a) Effects of sulfluramid-treated bait blocks on field colonies of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 88, 1343–8.
Su, N.-Y., Thoms, E.M., Ban, P.M. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1995b) Monitoring/baiting station to detect and eliminate foraging populations of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) near structures. J. Econ. Entomol. 88, 932–6.
Su, N.-Y., Ban, P.M. and Scheffrahn, R.H. (1997) Remedial baiting with hexaflumuron in above-ground stations to control structure-infesting populations of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 90, 809–17.
Tamashiro, M., Yates, J.R. and Ebesu, R.H. (1987) The Formosan subterranean termite in Hawaii: problem and control. In M. Tamashiro and N.-Y. Su (eds) Biology and control of the Formosan subterranean termite, pp. 16–20. Honolulu: College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii.
Thoms, E.M. and Sprenkel, R.J. (1996) Overcoming customer resistance to innovation: a case study in technology transfer from the developer to the pest control operator. In K.B. Wildey (ed.) Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Insect Pests in Urban Environment, pp. 459–64. Exeter: BPC Wheatons Ltd.
US Department of Agriculture (1951) Decay and termite damage in houses. Farmer’s Bull. 1993, 26.
Van Zwaluwenberg, R.H. (1916) Report of entomologist. Ann. Rep. Porto Rico Agricult. Exp. Sta. 1915, 42–5.
Walton, M.P. (1995) Integrated pest management in olives. In D. Dent (ed.) Integrated Pest Management, pp. 222–40. Chapman & Hall.
Wolcott, G.N. (1924) The comparative resistance of woods to the attack of the termite Cryptotermes brevis Walker. Porto Rico Insular Exp. Sta. Bull. 33, 3–15.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
SU, NY., Scheffrahn, R.H. A review of subterranean termite control practices and prospects for integrated pest management programmes. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 3, 1–13 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009684821954
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009684821954