Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Entomophagy and human food security

  • Review Article
  • Published:
International Journal of Tropical Insect Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Food security is a problem in many developing and less developed countries due to increase in human population and decrease in crop productivity and food availability. Edible insects are a natural renewable resource of food providing carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. As such, entomophagy is common in ethnic groups in South America, Mexico, Africa and Asia, where indigenous insects are easily available and are consumed in various forms (raw/processed) or used as an ingredient or supplement in modern recipes. Entomophagy therefore offers an opportunity to bridge the protein gap of human foods irrespective of a few constraints that are discussed. Concerning food security, more attention is needed to assess and revalidate entomophagy in the context of modern life. Further research would be necessary to exploit insect biodiversity and ethno-entomophagy, stop overexploitation of these insects, and initiate actions for insect conservation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adalla C. B. and Cervancia C. R. (2010) Philippine edible insects: a new opportunity to bridge the protein gap of resource-poor families and to manage pests, pp. 151–160. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Aguilar-Miranda F. D., Lopez M. G., Escamilla-Santana C. and Barba de la Rosa A. P. (2002) Characteristics of maize flour tortilla supplemented with ground Tenebrio molitor larvae. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 50, 192–195.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akinbode S. O., Dipeolu A. O. and Okuneye P. A. (2011) Willingness to pay for street food safety in Ogun state, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural and Food Information 12, 154–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allan R. A., Wang Q., Jimenez-Perez A. and Davis L. K. (2002) Wiseana copularis larvae (Lepidoptera: Hepiali-dae): laboratory rearing procedure and effect of temperature on survival. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 45, 71–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allotey J. and Mpuchane S. (2003) Utilization of useful insects as food source. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 3, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anand H., Ganguly A. and Haldou P. (2008) Potential value of acridids as high protein supplement for poultry feed. International Journal of Poultry Science 7, 722–725.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ayieko M. A. and Oriaro V. (2008) Consumption, indigenous knowledge and cultural values of the lake fly species within the Lake Victoria region. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 2, 282–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banjo A. D., Lawal O. A. and Songonuga E. A. (2006a) The nutritional value of fourteen species of edible insects in southwestern Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology 5, 298–301.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Banjo A. D., Lawal O. A. and Adeyemi A. J. (2006b) The microbial fauna associated with the larvae of Oryctes monoceros. Journal of Applied Sciences Research 2, 837–843.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beddington J. (2010) Global food and farming futures. (Preface) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (B). Biological Sciences 365, 2767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boongrid S. (2010) Honey and non-honey foods from bees in Thailand, pp. 165–172. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, PAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Boulidam S. (2010) Edible insects in a Lao market economy, pp. 131–140. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bukkens S. G. F. (1997) The nutritional value of edible insects. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 36, 287–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bukkens S. G. F. (2005) Insects in the human diet: nutritional aspects, pp. 545–577. In Ecological Implications of Minilivestock (edited by M. G. Paoletti). Science Publishers, Enfield, NH.

    Google Scholar 

  • Callavo A., Glew R. H., Huang Y. S., Chuang L. T., Bosse R. and Paoletti M. G. (2005) House cricket small-scale farming, pp. 519–544. In Ecological Implications of Minilivestock (edited by M. G. Paoletti). Science Publishers, Enfield, NH.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capinera J. L. (Ed.) (2004) Encyclopedia of Entomology. Vol. 1–3. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. 258 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cerda H., Martinez R., Briceno N., Pizzoferrato L., Manzi P., Tommaseo Ponzetta M., Martin O. and Paoletti M. G. (2001) Palm worm (Rhynchophorus palmarum), traditional food in Amazonas, Venezuela: nutritional composition, small scale production and tourist palatability. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 40, 13–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cerritosa R. and Cano-Santana C. (2008) Harvesting grasshoppers, Sphenarium purpurascens in Mexico for human consumption: a comparison with insecticidal control for managing pest outbreaks. Crop Protection 27, 473–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chakravorty J. (2009) Entomophagy - an ethnic cultural attribute can be exploited to control increased insect population due to global climate change: a case study. Paper presented at the International Human Dimensions Programme, Seventh International Science Conference on Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change, held at Bonn, Germany, 26–30 April 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakravorty J., Ghosh S. and Meyer-Rochow V. B. (2011) Practices of entomophagy and entomotherapy by members of the Nyishi and Galo tribes, two ethnic groups of the state of Arunachal Pradesh (North-East India). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 7, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charnley S., Fischer A. P. and Jones E. T. (2007) Integrating traditional and local ecological knowledge into forest biodiversity conservation in the Pacific Northwest. Forest Ecology and Management 246, 14–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen X., Feng Y. and Chen Z. (2009) Common edible insects and their utilization in China. Entomological Research 39, 299–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chidumayo E. N. and Mbata K. J. (2002) Shifting cultivation, edible caterpillars and livelihoods in the Kopa area of northern Zambia. Insects, Trees and Livelihoods 12, 175–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chung A. Y C. (2010) Edible insects and entomophagy, pp. 141–150. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chung A. Y C., Chey V K., Unchi S., Tinge K. S. and Won A. (2001) A survey of traditional use of insects and insect products as medicine in Sabah. Malaysian Naturalist 55, 24–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa-Neto E. M. (2000) Cockroach is good for asthma: zootherapeutic practices in northeastern Brazil. Human Ecology Review 7, 41–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craig B. and Bunn H. T. (eds) (2001) Meat-eating and Human Evolution. Oxford University Press, London. 384 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFoliart G. R. (1999) Insects as food: why the western attitude is important. Annual Review of Entomology 44, 21–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeFoliart G. R. (2005) Overview of role of edible insects in preserving biodiversity, pp. 123–140. In Ecological Implications of Minilivestock: Potential of Insects, Rodents, Frogs and Snails (edited by M. G. Paoletti). Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFoliart G. R., Dunkel F. V and Gracer D. (2009). The Food Insects Newsletter: Chronicle of Changing Culture. Aardvark Global Publishing, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. 414 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duan X. (1998) Introduction of research situation about chitin and chitosan and their application in agriculture and forestry. World Forest Research 11, 9–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards J. S. (1998) Cooking of honey bee brood in East Java. Honey Bee Science 19, 149–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekpo K. E. and Onigbinde A. O. (2005) Nutritional potentialities of the larvae of Rhynchophorus phoenicis (F). Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 4, 287–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fairman R. J. (2010) Instigating an education in insects: the eating creepy crawlies’ exhibition. Antenna 34, 169–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2010a) The State of Food Insecurity in the World (2009) Economic and Social Development Department, Food & Agriculture Organization, Rome (February 2010).

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2010b) In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

  • Feng Y., Chen X., Wang S., Ye S. and Chen Y. (2000) The common edible insects of Hemiptera and their nutritive value. Forest Research 13, 608–612.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feng Y., Chen X., Wang S., Ye S. and Chen Y. (2001) Three edible Odonata species and their nutritive value. Forest Research 14, 421–424.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feng Y., Chen X., Sun L. and Che Z. Y. (2010) Common edible wasps in Yunnan Province, China and their nutritional value, pp. 93–98. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Feng Y., Zhao M., He Z., Chen Z. and Sun L. (2009) Research and utilization of medicinal insects in China. Entomological Research 39, 313–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreira A. (1995) Saving the mopane worm: South Africa’s wiggly protein snack in danger. The Food Insects Newsletter 8, 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fosaranti J. O. (1997) The place of insects in the traditional medicine of southwestern Nigeria. The Food Insects Newsletter 10, 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frears S. L. (1995) Physiological ecology of the mopane worm, Imbrasia belina (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), p. 55. Proceedings of the Tenth Entomological Congress, 3–7 July 1995, Grahamstown, South Africa. Entomological Society of Southern Africa, Pretoria.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gahukar R. T. (2009) Food security: the challenges of climate change and bioenergy. Current Science 96, 26–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gahukar R. T. (2011) Food security in India: the challenge of food production and distribution. Journal of Agricultural and Food Information 12 (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon D. G. (1998) The Eat-A-Bug Cookbook. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA. 102 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gracer D. (2010) Filling the plates: serving insects to the public in the United States, pp. 217–220. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanboonsong Y. (2010) Edible insects and associated food habits in Thailand, pp. 173–182. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardouin J. (1995) Minilivestock: from gathering to controlled production. Biodiversity and Conservation 4, 220–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunter D. M. (2004) Advances in the control of locusts (Orthoptera: Acrididae) in eastern Australia: from crop protection to preventive control. Australian Journal of Entomology 43, 293–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Illgner P. and Nel E. (2000) The geography of edible insects in sub-Saharan Africa: a study of the mopane caterpillar. The Geographical Journal 166, 336–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jamjanya T., Thavornaukulkit C., Klibsuwan V. and Totuyo P. (2001) Mass Rearing of Crickets for Commercial Purposes. Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson D. V. (2010) The contribution of edible forest insects to human nutrition and to forest management: current status and future potential, pp. 5–22. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Katayama N., Ishikawa Y., Takaoki M., Yamashita M., Nakayama S., Kiguchi K., Kok R., Wada H. and Mitsuhashi J. (2008) Entomophagy: a key to space agriculture. Advances in Space Research 41, 701–705.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katayama N., Yamashita M., Wada H. and Mitsuhashi J. (2005) Entomophagy as part of a space diet for habitation on Mars. Journal of Space Technology and Science 21, 27–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kent G. (2002) Africa’s food security under globalization. African Journal of Food and Nutritional Sciences 2, 22–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim S. A., Kim K. M. and Oh B. J. (2008) Current status and perspectives of the insect industry in Korea. Entomological Research 38, 79–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kinyuru J. N., Kenji G. M. and Njoroge M. S. (2009) Process development, nutrition and sensory qualities of wheat buns enriched with edible termites (Macrotermes subhyalinus) from Lake Victoria region, Kenya. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development 9, 1739–1750.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kittler P. G. and Sucher K. (2008) Food and Culture. 5th edn. Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. 576 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar P. (2010) Functioning of public distribution system in India: an empirical evaluation. Outlook on Agriculture 39, 177–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latham P. (1999) Edible caterpillars of the Bas Congo region of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Antenna 23, 134–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Latham P. (2001) Edible Caterpillars and Their Food Plants in Bas Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo. Forneth, London. 41 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lingeswaran A., Vijayakumar V. and Dinesh J. (2009) Entomophagy and coprophagy in undifferentiated schizophrenia. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine 31, 52–63.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liu X. D., Tian J. J. and Chen D. M. (2001) An allergic shock case that resulted from consuming silkworm pupae. Chinese Recuperative Medicine 10, 80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Losey J. and Vaughan M. (2006) The economic value of ecological services provided by insects. Bioscience 56, 311–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lukiwati D. R. (2010) Teak caterpillars and other edible insects in Java, pp. 99–104. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, PAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Luo Z. Y. (1997) Insects as food in China. Ecology of Pood and Nutrition 25, 267–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacEvilly C. (2000) Bugs in the system. Nutrition Bulletin 25, 267–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malaisse F. (2005) Human consumption of Lepidoptera, termites, Orthoptera and ants in Africa, pp. 175–230. In Ecological Implications of Minilivestock: Potential of Insects, Rodents, Frogs and Snails for Sustainable Development (edited by M. G. Paoletti). Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mbata K. J. (1995) Traditional uses of arthropods in Zambia: I. The food insects. The Food Insects Newsletter 8, 5–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mbata K. J. and Chidumayo E. N. (1999) Emperor moth caterpillars (Saturniidae) for a snack: traditional processing of edible caterpillars and sale in the Kopa area of Zambia. The Food Insects Newsletter 12, 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mbata K. J., Chidumayo E. N. and Lwatula C. M. (2002) Traditional regulation of edible caterpillar exploitation in the Kopa area of Mpika district in northern Zambia. Journal of Insect Conservation 6, 115–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie D. (2002) Are tortillas a Giffen good in Mexico? Economics Bulletin 15, 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Rochow V. B. (2005) Traditional food insects and spiders in several ethnic groups of northeast India, Papua New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand, pp. 389–413. In Ecological Implications of Minilivestock: Potential of Insects, Rodents, Frogs and Snails for Sustainable Development (edited by M. G. Paoletti). Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Rochow V. B. (2009) Food taboos: their origins and purposes. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 5, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Health (2003) Technical Methods for Testing and Assessment of Healthy Food. Ministry of Health, Beijing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitsuhashi J. (1997) Insects as traditional foods in Japan. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 36, 187–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitsuhashi J. (2007) Use of insects in closed space environment. Biological Sciences in Space 21, 124–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitsuhashi J. (2010) The future use of insects as human food, pp. 115–122. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris B. (2004) Insects and Human Life. Berg Publishers, Oxford. 320 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mulhane S., Gashe B. A., Allotey J., Siame A. B., Teferra G. and Ditlhogo M. (2001) Quality determination of Phane, the edible caterpillar of an Emperor moth, Imbrasia belina. Food Control 11, 453–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munoz C. B. (2008) Transnational Tortillas (Race, Gender and Shop-floor Politics in Mexico and the United States). Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. 202 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munyuli Bin Mushambanyi T. (2000) Etude preliminaire orientee vers la production des chenilles consommables par l’elevage des papillons Anaphe infracta (Thaumetopoeidae) a Lwiro, Sud-Kivu, Republique Democratique du Congo. Tropiculture 18, 208–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nandasena M. R. M. P., Disanayake D. M. S. K. and Weeratunga L. (2010) Sri Lanka as a potential gene pool of edible insects, pp. 161–164. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nonaka K. (1996) Ethnoentomology of the central Kalahari San. African Study Monographs (Supplement) 22, 29–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nonaka K. (2005) Ethnoentomology: Insect Eating and Human-Insect Relationship. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nonaka K. (2010) Cultural and commercial roles of edible wasps in Japan, pp. 123–130. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Okaraonye C. C. and Ikewuchi J. C. (2008) Rhynchophorus phoenicis (F.) larval meal: nutritional value and health implications. Journal of Biological Science 8, 122–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Onore G. (1997) A brief note on edible insects in Ecuador. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 36, 277–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Onyeike E. N., Ayalogu E. O. and Okaraonye C. C. (2005) Nutritive value of the larvae of raphia palm beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) and weevil (Rhychophorus phoenicis). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 85, 1822–1828.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Onzikou J. M., Memba F., Mvoula-Tsieri M., Diabango-naya-Batela B., Malela K. E., Kimbonguila A., Ndangui C. B., Pambou-Tobi N. P., Silou T. and Desobry S. (2010) Characterization and nutritional potentials of Rhyncophorus phoenicis larva consumed in Congo-Brazzaville. Current Research Journal of Biological Sciences 2, 189–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oonincx D. G., Itterbeeck J., Heetkamp M. J., van den Brand H., van Loon J. J. and van Huis A. (2010) An exploration on greenhouse gas and ammonia production by insect species suitable for animal or human consumption. PLoS One 5 (12) el4445. (29 December 2010). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.001445.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oyegoke O. O., Akintola A. J. and Fasoranti J. O. (2006) Dietary potentials of the edible larvae of Cirina forda (Westwood) as a poultry feed. African Journal of Biotechnology 5, 1799–1802.

    Google Scholar 

  • Padmanabhan P. and Sujana K. A. (2008) Animal products in traditional medicine from Allapady hills in Western Ghats. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 7, 326–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paoletti M. G. (ed.) (2005) Ecological Implications of Minilivestock: Potential of Insects, Rodents, Frogs and Snails for Sustainable Development. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH. 648 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paoletti M. G. and Dufour D. L. (2002) Minilivestock, Vol. 1. pp. 487–492. In Encyclopedia of Pest Management (edited by D. Pimentai). Marcel Dekker, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paoletti M. G., Buscardo E., Vanderjagt D. J., Pastuszyn A., Pizzoferrato L., Hunag V., Chung T., Millson M., Cerda H. and Glew R. H. (2003) Nutrient content of termites (Syntermes) soldiers consumed by Markiritare Amerindians of Alto Orinoco of Venezuela. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 42, 173–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulino A. T., Simionato J. I., Garcia J. C. and Nozaki J. (2006) Characterization of chitosan and chitin produced from silkworm chrysalides. Carbohydrate Polymers 64, 98–103.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pemberton R. W. (1995) Catching and eating dragonflies in Bali and elsewhere in Asia. American Entomologist 4, 97–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pemberton R. W. (1999) Insects and other arthropods used as drugs in Korean traditional medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 65, 207–216.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips J. and Burkholder W. (1995) Allergies related to food insect production and consumption. Food Insects Newsletter 8 (https://doi.org/www.food-insects.com).

    Google Scholar 

  • Raffles H. (2010) Insectopedia. Pantheon Books, Random House Inc., New York, NY. 465 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramandey E. and Mastrigt H. (2010) Edible insects in Papua, Indonesia: from delicious snack to basic need, pp. 105–114. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Elorduy J. (1997a) Insects: a sustainable source of food. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 36, 247–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Elorduy J. (1997b) Importance of edible insects in the nutrition and economy of people of the rural areas of Mexico. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 36, 347–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Elorduy J. (1998) Creepy Crawly Cuisine; the Gourmet Guide to Edible Insects. Park Street Press, Rochester, VT. 150 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Elorduy J. (2005) Insects: a hopeful food source, pp. 263–291. In Ecological Implications of Minilivestock: Potential of Insects, Rodents, Frogs and Snails for Sustainable Development (edited by M. G. Paoletti). Science Publishers Inc., Enfield, NH.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Elorduy J. (2006) Threatened edible insects in Hidalgo, Mexico and some measures to preserve them. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2, 51.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Elorduy J. (2008) Energy supplied by edible insects from Mexico and their nutritional and ecological importance. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 47, 280–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Elorduy J. (2009) Anthropo-entomophagy: cultures, evolution and sustainability. Entomological Research 39, 271–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Elorduy J., Gonzalez E. A., Hernandez A. R. and Pino J. M. (2002) Use of Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) to recycle organic wastes and as feed for broiler chickens. Journal of Economic Entomology 95, 214–220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ratcliffe B. C. (2006) Scarab beetles in human culture. Coleopterists’ Society Monographs 5, 85–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reid H., Huq S., Inkinen A., MacGregor J., Macqueen D., Mayers J., Murrey L. and Tipper R. (2004) Using Wood Products to Mitigate Climate Change. International Institute for Environment and Development, London. 81 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roulon-Doko P. (1998) Les activites de cueillete, Chasse, Cueillette et Culture chez les Gbaya de Centrafrique. Editions Harmattan, Paris. pp. 247–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarmah K. (2011) Eri pupa: a delectable dish of North East India. Current Science 100, 279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sathe T. V., Jadhav A. D., Kamadi N. G. and Undale J. P. (2008) Low cost rearing techniques for mulberry silkworm (PM × NB4D2) by using nylon and indigenous shelves. Biotechnological Approaches in Entomology 5, 205–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seignobos C., Dequine J. P. and Aberlen C. H. P. (1996) Les Mofu et leurs insectes. Journal d’Agriculture traditionelle et de Botanique appliquee 28, 125–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sileshi G. W. and Kenis M. (2010) Food security: farming insects. Science 327, 797.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sirimungkarakat S., Saksirirat W., Nopparat T. and Natongkham A. (2010) Edible products of eri silkworm (Samia ricini D.) and mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) in Thailand, pp. 189–200. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Srivastava S. K., Babu N. and Pandey N. (2009) Traditional insect bioprospecting as human food and medicine. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 8, 485–494.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Huis A. (2003) Insects as food in sub-Saharan Africa. Insect Science and Its Application 23, 163–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vetter R. (1995) A case of ingestant allergy from eating a grasshopper. The Food Insects Newsletter 8, 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vogel G. (2010) For more protein, filet of cricket. Science 327, 811.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xiaoming C., Ying F. and Hong Z. (2010) Review of the nutrition value of edible insects, pp. 85–92. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yen A. L. (2009a) Edible insects: traditional knowledge or western phobia? Entomological Research 39, 289–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yen A. L. (2009b) Entomophagy and insect conservation: some thoughts for digestion. Journal of Insect Conservation 13, 667–670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yen A. L. (2010) Edible insects and other invertebrates in Australia: future prospects, pp. 65–83. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yhoung-aree J. (2010) Edible insects in Thailand: nutritional values and health concerns, pp. 201–216. In Forest Insects as Food: Humans Bite Back. Proceedings of a Workshop on Asia-Pacific Resources and Their Potential for Development, 19–21 February 2008, FAO, Chiang-Mai, Thailand (edited by D. B. Durst, D. V. Johnson, R. N. Leslie and K. Shono). FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok (Publication No. 2010/02).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yhoung-aree J., Puwastien P. P. and Attig G. A. (1997) Edible insects in Thailand: an unconventional protein source? Ecology of Food and Nutrition 36, 133–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang M., Haga A., Sekiguchi H. and Hirano S. (2000) Structure of insect chitin isolated from beetle larva cuticle and silkworm (Bombyx mori) pupa exuvia. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 27, 99–105.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou J. X. (2004) Health food derived from silkworm pupae approved. Food Information and Technology 4, 64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou J. X. and Han D. (2006) Safety evaluation of protein of silkworm (Antheraea pernyi) pupae. Food and Chemical Toxicology 44, 1123–1130.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Arag Biotech Private Limited, Plot 220, Reshimbag, Nagpur, 440 009, India

    R. T. Gahukar

Authors
  1. R. T. Gahukar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to R. T. Gahukar.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gahukar, R.T. Entomophagy and human food security. Int J Trop Insect Sci 31, 129–144 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758411000257

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758411000257

Key words

Search

Navigation