Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in
Menu
Find a journal Publish with us Track your research
Search
Cart
  1. Home
  2. Neurotherapeutics
  3. Article

Use of magnesium in traumatic brain injury

  • Review Article
  • Published: January 2010
  • Volume 7, pages 91–99, (2010)
  • Cite this article
Download PDF
Neurotherapeutics
Use of magnesium in traumatic brain injury
Download PDF
  • Ananda P. Sen1 &
  • Anil Gulati2 

    We’re sorry, something doesn't seem to be working properly.

    Please try refreshing the page. If that doesn't work, please contact support so we can address the problem.

Summary

Depletion of magnesium is observed in animal brain and in human blood after brain injury. Treatment with magnesium attenuates the pathological and behavioral changes in rats with brain injury; however, the therapeutic effect of magnesium has not been consistently observed in humans with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Secondary brain insults are observed in patients with brain injury, which adversely affect clinical outcome. Systemic administration studies in rats have shown that magnesium enters the brain; however, inducing hypermagnesemia in humans did not concomitantly increase magnesium levels in the CSF. We hypothesize that the neuroprotective effects of magnesium in TBI patients could be observed by increasing its brain bioavailability with mannitol. Here, we review the role of magnesium in brain injury, preclinical studies in brain injury, clinical safety and efficacy studies in TBI patients, brain bioavailability studies in rat, and pharmacokinetic studies in humans with brain injury. Neurodegeneration after brain injury involves multiple biochemical pathways. Treatment with a single agent has often resulted in poor efficacy at a safe dose or toxicity at a therapeutic dose. A successful neuroprotective therapy needs to be aimed at homeostatic control of these pathways with multiple agents. Other pharmacological agents, such as dexanabinol and progesterone, and physiological interventions, with hypothermia and hyperoxia, have been studied for the treatment of brain injury. Treatment with magnesium and hypothermia has shown favorable outcome in rats with cerebral ischemia. We conclude that coadministration of magnesium and mannitol with pharmacological and physiological agents could be an effective neuroprotective regimen for the treatment of TBI.

Article PDF

Download to read the full article text

We’re sorry, something doesn't seem to be working properly.

Please try refreshing the page. If that doesn't work, please contact support so we can address the problem.

Use our pre-submission checklist

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

References

  1. Temkin NR, Anderson GD, Winn HR, et al. Magnesium sulfate for neuroprotection after traumatic brain injury: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2007;6: 29–38.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Dhandapani SS, Gupta A, Vivekanandhan S, Sharma BS, Mahapatra AK. Randomized controlled trial of magnesium sulphate in severe closed traumatic brain injury. Indian J Neurotrauma 2008; 5: 27–33.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Hallak M, Berman RF, Irtenkauf SM, Evans MI, Cotton DB. Peripheral magnesium sulfate enters the brain and increases the threshold for hippocampal seizures in rats. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167: 1605–1610.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Hoane MR. Assessment of cognitive function following magnesium therapy in the traumatically injured brain. Magnes Res 2007; 20: 229–236.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Fuchs-Buder T, Tramèr MR, Tassonyi E. Cerebrospinal fluid passage of intravenous magnesium sulfate in neurosurgical patients. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 1997;9: 324–328.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. McKee JA, Brewer RP, Macy GE, et al. Analysis of the brain bioavailability of peripherally administered magnesium sulfate: a study in humans with acute brain injury undergoing prolonged induced hypermagnesemia. Crit Care Med 2005;33: 661–666.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Thumau GR, Kemp DB, Jarvis A. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of magnesium in patients with preeclampsia after treatment with intravenous magnesium sulfate: a preliminary report. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;157: 1435–1438.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Stoica B, Byrnes K, Faden AI. Multifunctional drug treatment in neurotrauma. Neurotherapeutics 2009;6: 14–27.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Vink R, Nimmo AJ. Multifunctional drugs for head injury. Neurotherapeutics 2009;6: 28–42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Maas AI, Murray G, Henney H 3rd, et al. Efficacy and safety of dexanabinol in severe traumatic brain injury: results of a phase III randomised, placebo-controlled, clinical trial. Lancet Neurol 2006; 5: 38–45.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Bouma GJ, Muizelaar JP, Choi SC, Newlon PG, Young HF. Cerebral circulation and metabolism after severe traumatic brain injury: the elusive role of ischemia. J Neurosurg 1991;75: 685–693.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Jenkins LW, Moszynski K, Lyeth BG, et al. Increased vulnerability of the mildly traumatized rat brain to cerebral ischemia: the use of controlled secondary ischemia as a research tool to identify common or different mechanisms contributing to mechanical and ischemic brain injury. Brain Res 1989;477: 211–224.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Bergsneider M, Hovda DA, Shalmon E, et al. Cerebral hyperglycolysis following severe traumatic brain injury in humans: a positron emission tomography study. J Neurosurg 1997;86: 241–251.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Goodman JC, Valadka AB, Gopinath SP, Uzura M, Robertson CS. Extracellular lactate and glucose alterations in the brain after head injury measured by microdialysis. Crit Care Med 1999;27: 1965–1973.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Enblad P, Valtysson J, Andersson J, et al. Simultaneous intracerebral microdialysis and positron emission tomography in the detection of ischemia in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1996;16: 637–644.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Persson L, Valtysson J, Enblad P, et al. Neurochemical monitoring using intracerebral microdialysis in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 1996;84: 606–616.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Stocchetti N, Colombo A, Ortolano F, et al. Time course of intracranial hypertension after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2007;24: 1339–1346.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Balestreri M, Czosnyka M, Hutchinson P, et al. Impact of intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure on severe disability and mortality after head injury. Neurocrit Care 2006;4: 8–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Obrenovitch TP, Urenjak J. Is high extracellular glutamate the key to excitotoxicity in traumatic brain injury? J Neurotrauma 1997; 14: 677–698.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Fiskum G. Mitochondrial participation in ischemic and traumatic neural cell death. J Neurotrauma 2000;17: 843–855.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Lifshitz J, Friberg H, Neumar RW, et al. Structural and functional damage sustained by mitochondria after traumatic brain injury in the rat: evidence for differentially sensitive populations in the cortex and hippocampus. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2003;23: 219–231.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. van den Heuvel C, Vink R. The role of magnesium in traumatic brain injury. Clin Calcium 2004;14: 9–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Garfinkel L, Garfinkel D. Magnesium regulation of the glycolytic pathway and the enzymes involved. Magnesium 1985;4: 60–72.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Altura BM, Altura BT. Magnesium ions and contraction of vascular smooth muscles: relationship to some vascular diseases. Fed Proc 1981;40: 2672–2679.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Hans CP, Chaudhary DP, Bansal DD. Magnesium deficiency increases oxidative stress in rats. Indian J Exp Biol 2002;40: 1275–1279.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Garcia LA, Dejong SC, Martin SM, Smith RS, Buettner GR, Kerber RE. Magnesium reduces free radicals in an in vivo coronary occlusion-reperfusion model. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;32: 536–539.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Cernak I, Savic VJ, Kotur J, Prokic V, Veljovic M, Grbovic D. Characterization of plasma magnesium concentration and oxidative stress following graded traumatic brain injury in humans. J Neurotrauma 2000;17: 53–68.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Chan MT, Boet R, Ng SC, Poon WS, Gin T. Magnesium sulfate for brain protection during temporary cerebral artery occlusion. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2005;95: 107–111.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Napieralski JA, Raghupathi R, McIntosh TK. The tumor-suppressor gene, p53, is induced in injured brain regions following experimental traumatic brain injury. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1999;71: 78–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Lee JS, Han YM, Yoo DS, et al. A molecular basis for the efficacy of magnesium treatment following traumatic brain injury in rats. J Neurotrauma 2004;21: 549–561.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Nielsen S, Nagelhus EA, Amiry-Moghaddam M, Bourque C, Agre P, Ottersen OP. Specialized membrane domains for water transport in glial cells: high-resolution immunogold cytochemistry of aquaporin-4 in rat brain. J Neurosci 1997;17: 171–180.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Ghabriel MN, Thomas A, Vink R. Magnesium restores altered aquaporin-4 immunoreactivity following traumatic brain injury to a pre-injury state. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2006;96: 402–406.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Okiyama K, Smith DH, Gennarelli TA, Simon RP, Leach M, Mclntosh TK. The sodium channel blocker and glutamate release inhibitor BW1003C87 and magnesium attenuate regional cerebral edema following experimental brain injury in the rat. J Neurochem 1995;64: 802–809.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Heath DL, Vink R. Concentration of brain free magnesium following severe brain injury correlates with neurologic motor outcome. J Clin Neurosci 1999;6: 505–509.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Bareyre FM, Saatman KE, Helfaer MA, et al. Alterations in ionized and total blood magnesium after experimental traumatic brain injury: relationship to neurobehavioral outcome and neuroprotective efficacy of magnesium chloride. J Neurochem 1999;73: 271–280.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Feldman Z, Gurevitch B, Artru AA, et al. Effect of magnesium given 1 hour after head trauma on brain edema and neurological outcome. J Neurosurg 1996;85: 131–137.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Browne KD, Leoni MJ, Iwata A, Chen XH, Smith DH. Acute treatment with MgSO4 attenuates long-term hippocampal tissue loss after brain trauma in the rat. J Neurosci Res 2004;77: 878–883.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Hoane MR. Magnesium therapy and recovery of function in experimental models of brain injury and neurodegenerative disease. Clin Calcium 2004; 14: 65–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Hoane MR, Knotts AA, Akstulewicz SL, Aquilano M, Means LW. The behavioral effects of magnesium therapy on recovery of function following bilateral anterior medial cortex lesions in the rat. Brain Res Bull 2003;60: 105–114.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Heath DL, Vink R. Optimization of magnesium therapy after severe diffuse axonal brain injury in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999;288: 1311–1316.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Bareyre FM, Saatman KE, Raghupathi R, McIntosh TK. Postinjury treatment with magnesium chloride attenuates cortical damage after traumatic brain injury in rats. J Neurotrauma 2000;17: 1029–1039.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Heath DL, Vink R. Improved motor outcome in response to magnesium therapy received up to 24 hours after traumatic diffuse axonal brain injury in rats. J Neurosurg 1999;90: 504–509.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Hoane MR, Barth TM. The window of opportunity for administration of magnesium therapy following focal brain injury is 24 h but is task dependent in the rat. Physiol Behav 2002;76: 271–280.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Vink R, O’Connor CA, Nimmo AJ, Heath DL. Magnesium attenuates persistent functional deficits following diffuse traumatic brain injury in rats. Neurosci Lett 2003;336: 41–44.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Heath DL, Vink R. Subdural hematoma following traumatic brain injury causes a secondary decline in brain free magnesium concentration. J Neurotrauma 2001;18: 465–469.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Kahraman S, Ozgurtas T, Kayali H, Atabey C, Kutluay T, Timurkaynak E. Monitoring of serum ionized magnesium in neurosurgical intensive care unit: preliminary results. Clin Chim Acta 2003;334: 211–215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Memon ZI, Altura BT, Benjamin JL, Cracco RQ, Altura BM. Predictive value of serum ionized but not total magnesium levels in head injuries. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1995;55: 671–677.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Polderman KH, Bloemers FW, Peerdeman SM, Girbes AR. Hypomagnesemia and hypophosphatemia at admission in patients with severe head injury. Crit Care Med 2000;28: 2022–2025.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Sakamoto T, Takasu A, Saitoh D, Kaneko N, Yanagawa Y, Okada Y. Ionized magnesium in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with head injuries. J Trauma 2005;58: 1103–1109.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Kafadar AM, Sanus GZ, Is M, et al. Prolonged elevation of magnesium in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with severe head injury. Neurol Res 2007;29: 824–829.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Canavero S, Bonicalzi V, Narcisi P. Safety of magnesium—lidocaine combination for severe head injury: the Turin Lidomag Pilot Study. Surg Neurol 2003;60: 165–169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Natale JE, Guerguerian AM, Joseph JG, et al. Pilot study to determine the hemodynamic safety and feasibility of magnesium sulfate infusion in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2007;8: 1–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Mosenthal AC, Livingston DH, Lavery RF, et al. The effect of age on functional outcome in mild traumatic brain injury: 6-month report of a prospective multicenter trial. J Trauma 2004;56: 1042–1048.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Livingston DH, Lavery RF, Mosenthal AC, et al. Recovery at one year following isolated traumatic brain injury: a Western Trauma Association prospective multicenter trial. J Trauma 2005;59: 1298–1304.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Chesnut RM, Marshall LF, Klauber MR, et al. The role of secondary brain injury in determining outcome from severe head injury. J Trauma 1993;34: 216–222.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Newfield P, Pitts L, Kaktis J, Hoff J. The influence of shock on mortality after head trauma. Crit Care Med 1980;8: 254 (abstract).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Manley G, Knudson MM, Morabito D, Damron S, Erickson V, Pitts L. Hypotension, hypoxia, and head injury: frequency, duration, and consequences. Arch Surg 2001;136: 1118–1123.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Rovlias A, Kotsou S. The influence of hyperglycemia on neurological outcome in patients with severe head injury. Neurosurgery 2000;46: 335–342; discussion 342–343.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Laird AM, Miller PR, Kilgo PD, Meredith JW, Chang MC. Relationship of early hyperglycemia to mortality in trauma patients. J Trauma 2004;56: 1058–1062.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Walia S, Sutcliffe AJ. The relationship between blood glucose, mean arterial pressure and outcome after severe head injury: an observational study. Injury 2002;33: 339–344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Bochicchio GV, Joshi M, Bochicchio KM, et al. Early hyperglycemic control is important in critically injured trauma patients. J Trauma 2007;63: 1353–1358.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Zygun DA, Kortbeek JB, Fick GH, Laupland KB, Doig CJ. Non-neurologic organ dysfunction in severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med 2005;33: 654–660.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Jeremitsky E, Omert L, Dunham CM, Protetch J, Rodriguez A. Harbingers of poor outcome the day after severe brain injury: hypothermia, hypoxia, and hypoperfusion. J Trauma 2003;54: 312–319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Schmid-Elsaesser R, Zausinger S, Hungerhuber E, Baethmann A, Reulen HJ. Neuroprotective effects of combination therapy with tirilazad and magnesium in rats subjected to reversible focal cerebral ischemia. Neurosurgery 1999;44: 163–171.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Barbie AB, Hoane MR. Magnesium and riboflavin combination therapy following cortical contusion injury in the rat. Brain Res Bull 2006;69: 639–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Eshhar N, Striem S, Kohen R, Tirosh O, Biegon A. Neuroprotective and antioxidant activities of HU-211, a novel NMDA receptor antagonist. Eur J Pharmacol 1995;283: 19–29.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Feigenbaum JJ, Bergmann F, Richmond SA, et al. Nonpsychotropic cannabinoid acts as a functional N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor blocker. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1989;86: 9584–9587.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Shohami E, Gallily R, Mechoulam R, Bass R, Ben-Hur T. Cytokine production in the brain following closed head injury: dexanabinol (HU-211) is a novel TNF-α inhibitor and an effective neuroprotectant. J Neuroimmunol 1997;72: 169–177.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Knoller N, Levi L, Shoshan I, et al. Dexanabinol (HU-211) in the treatment of severe closed head injury: a randomized, placebo-controlled, phase II clinical trial. Crit Care Med 2002;30: 548–554.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Ogata T, Nakamura Y, Tsuji K, Shibata T, Kataoka K. Steroid hormones protect spinal cord neurons from glutamate toxicity. Neuroscience 1993;55: 445–449.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Roof RL, Hoffman SW, Stein DG. Progesterone protects against lipid peroxidation following traumatic brain injury in rats. Mol Chem Neuropathol 1997;31: 1–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. O’Connor CA, Cemak I, Vink R. Both estrogen and progesterone attenuate edema formation following diffuse traumatic brain injury in rats. Brain Res 2005;1062: 171–174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Pettus EH, Wright DW, Stein DG, Hoffman SW. Progesterone treatment inhibits the inflammatory agents that accompany traumatic brain injury. Brain Res 2005;1049: 112–119.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. O’Connor CA, Cemak I, Johnson F, Vink R. Effects of progesterone on neurologic and morphologic outcome following diffuse traumatic brain injury in rats. Exp Neurol 2007;205: 145–153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Wright DW, Kellermann AL, Hertzberg VS, et al. ProTECT: a randomized clinical trial of progesterone for acute traumatic brain injury. Ann Emerg Med 2007;49: 391–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Xiao G, Wei J, Yan W, Wang W, Lu Z. Improved outcomes from the administration of progesterone for patients with acute severe traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlled trial. Crit Care 2008;12: R61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Zhu H, Meloni BP, Bojarski C, Knuckey MW, Knuckey NW. Post-ischemic modest hypothermia (35°C) combined with intravenous magnesium is more effective at reducing CA1 neuronal death than either treatment used alone following global cerebral ischemia in rats. Exp Neurol 2005;193: 361–368.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Campbell K, Meloni BP, Knuckey NW. Combined magnesium and mild hypothermia (35°C) treatment reduces infarct volumes after permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion in the rat at 2 and 4, but not 6 h. Brain Res 2008;1230: 258–264.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Schmid-Elsaesser R, Hungerhuber E, Zausinger S, Baethmann A, Reulen HJ. Combination drug therapy and mild hypothermia: a promising treatment strategy for reversible, focal cerebral ischemia. Stroke 1999;30: 1891–1899.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Zausinger S, Schöller K, Plesnila N, Schmid-Elsaesser R. Combination drug therapy and mild hypothermia after transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Stroke 2003;34: 2246–2251.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Jiang J, Yu M, Zhu C. Effect of long-term mild hypothermia therapy in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: 1-year follow-up review of 87 cases. J Neurosurg 2000;93: 546–549.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Qiu W, Zhang Y, Sheng H, et al. Effects of therapeutic mild hypothermia on patients with severe traumatic brain injury after craniotomy. J Crit Care 2007;22: 229–235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Smrcka M, Vidlák M, Máca K, Smrcka V, Gál R. The influence of mild hypothermia on ICP, CPP and outcome in patients with primary and secondary brain injury. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2005; 95: 273–275.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Marion DW, Penrod LE, Kelsey SF, et al. Treatment of traumatic brain injury with moderate hypothermia. N Engl J Med 1997;336: 540–546.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Clifton GL, Miller ER, Choi SC, et al. Lack of effect of induction of hypothermia after acute brain injury. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 556–563.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Shiozaki T, Hayakata T, Taneda M, et al.; Mild Hypothermia Study Group in Japan. A multicenter prospective randomized controlled trial of the efficacy of mild hypothermia for severely head injured patients with low intracranial pressure. J Neurosurg 2001; 94: 50–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Bayir H, Adelson PD, Wisniewski SR, et al. Therapeutic hypothermia preserves antioxidant defenses after severe traumatic brain injury in infants and children [Erratum in: Crit Care Med 2009; 37:1536]. Crit Care Med 2009;37: 689–695.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Peterson K, Carson S, Carney N. Hypothermia treatment for traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurotrauma 2008;25: 62–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Bullock MR. Hyperoxia: good or bad? J Neurosurg 2003;98: 943–944.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Tisdall MM, Tachtsidis I, Leung TS, Elwell CE, Smith M. Increase in cerebral aerobic metabolism by normobaric hyperoxia after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 2008;109: 424–432.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Rockswold SB, Rockswold GL, Vargo JM, et al. Effects of hyper-baric oxygenation therapy on cerebral metabolism and intracranial pressure in severely brain injured patients. J Neurosurg 2001;94: 403–411.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Nortje J, Coles JP, Timofeev I, et al. Effect of hyperoxia on regional oxygenation and metabolism after severe traumatic brain injury: preliminary findings. Crit Care Med 2008;36: 273–281.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Diringer MN, Aiyagari V, Zazulia AR, Videen TO, Powers WJ. Effect of hyperoxia on cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen measured using positron emission tomography in patients with acute severe head injury. J Neurosurg 2007;106: 526–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Menzel M, Doppenberg EM, Zauner A, Soukup J, Reinert MM, Bullock R. Increased inspired oxygen concentration as a factor in improved brain tissue oxygenation and tissue lactate levels after severe human head injury. J Neurosurg 1999;91: 1–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Reinert M, Barth A, Rothen HU, Schaller B, Takala J, Seiler RW. Effects of cerebral perfusion pressure and increased fraction of inspired oxygen on brain tissue oxygen, lactate and glucose in patients with severe head injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2003;145: 341–349; discussion 349–350.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Tolias CM, Reinert M, Seiler R, Gilman C, Scharf A, Bullock MR. Normobaric hyperoxia-induced improvement in cerebral metabolism and reduction in intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury: a prospective historical cohort-matched study. J Neurosurg 2004; 101: 435–444.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Jenkinson SG. Oxygen toxicity. New Horiz 1993;1: 504–511.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Bulte DP, Chiarelli PA, Wise RG, Jezzard P. Cerebral perfusion response to hyperoxia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2007;27: 69–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. EndogenX, 15595 Los Gatos Boulevard, 95032, Los Gatos, CA

    Ananda P. Sen

  2. Chicago College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, 60515, Downers Grove, Illinois

    Anil Gulati

Authors
  1. Ananda P. Sen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anil Gulati
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ananda P. Sen.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Sen, A.P., Gulati, A. Use of magnesium in traumatic brain injury. Neurotherapeutics 7, 91–99 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nurt.2009.10.014

Download citation

  • Issue Date: January 2010

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nurt.2009.10.014

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Key Words

  • Traumatic brain injury
  • magnesium
  • neuroprotection
  • hyperoxia
  • hypothermia
Use our pre-submission checklist

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Advertisement

Search

Navigation

  • Find a journal
  • Publish with us
  • Track your research

Discover content

  • Journals A-Z
  • Books A-Z

Publish with us

  • Journal finder
  • Publish your research
  • Open access publishing

Products and services

  • Our products
  • Librarians
  • Societies
  • Partners and advertisers

Our imprints

  • Springer
  • Nature Portfolio
  • BMC
  • Palgrave Macmillan
  • Apress
  • Your US state privacy rights
  • Accessibility statement
  • Terms and conditions
  • Privacy policy
  • Help and support
  • Cancel contracts here

35.170.81.33

Not affiliated

Springer Nature

© 2024 Springer Nature