Abstract
Female-female competition over mates is often considered of minor importance, particularly in polygynous species. In red deer (Cervus elaphus), female-female aggression within harems during the breeding season has not been studied to date. Herein, we examined if oestrous female red deer in harems show elevated aggression rates, compared to when they are in harems but not in oestrous, and also when they are in foraging groups outside of the breeding season. Any increased levels of aggression involving oestrous females, could indicate the potential for female-female competition for mates in this species. We found that aggressive interactions among female red deer were clearly evident. The most common forms of aggression were displacements, nose threats and kicking. Biting and ear threats occurred less frequently, and chases were rare. There were no differences in the proportion of the different aggression types in the three social contexts. More importantly, we found that the highest overall rates of aggression were for oestrous females in harems, and for females in foraging groups. The lowest rates of aggression were found in harems (when the focal female was not in oestrous). If high rates of aggression also occur when several females are simultaneously in oestrous within single harems, then it is possible that this aggression could affect either mate choice or mating order. These results suggest that female-female competition over mates could play a role in the mating behaviour of red deer.
Zusammenfassung
Die Konkurrenz unter Weibchen um potentielle Paarungen wird oftmals als nicht relevant erachtet, vor allem bei polygynen Arten. Beim Rothirsch (Cervus elaphus) wurden bis heute keine Studien über weibliche Aggressivitäten in Harems während der Paarungszeit durchgeführt. In unserer Studie haben wir untersucht, ob Rothirschkühe im Harem und im Oestrus höhere Aggressionsraten aufweisen als Kühe im Harem, die aber nicht im Oestrus sind, oder Kühe in Kahlwildrudeln ausserhalb der Paarungszeit. Erhöhte Aggressivität bei Rothirschkühen, die im Oestrus sind, kann als Zeichen für Konkurrenz unter Weibchen um potentielle Paarungen gedeutet werden. Aggressive Interaktionen zwischen Rothirschkühen fanden häufig statt während unserer Studie. Die meistverbreiteten Aggressivitäten waren Verdrängungen, Drohgebärden mit dem Äser und Tritte. Bisse und Drohgebärden mit den Ohren fanden weniger häufig statt und Verfolgungen waren selten. Wir fanden keinen Unterschied in der Häufigkeit der verschiedenen Aggressivitätsformen zwischen den drei verschiedenen sozialen Kontexten. Es konnte jedoch gezeigt werden, dass Rothirschkühe im Harem und im Oestrus sowie Kühe in Kahlwildrudeln ausserhalb der Paarungszeit die höchsten Aggressionsraten aufweisen. Die tiefsten Aggressionsraten wurden in Harems gefunden, wenn das Fokustier nicht im Oestrus war. Falls hohe Aggressionsraten auch auftreten, wenn mehrere Weibchen gleichzeitig im Oestrus sind innerhalb eines einzelnen Harems, dann ist es möglich, dass diese Aggressivität die Partnerwahl oder die Reihenfolge der Paarungen beeinflusst. Diese Studie zeigt auf, dass die Konkurrenz unter Weibchen um potentielle Paarungen eine wichtige Rolle beim Paarungsverhalten des Rotwildes spielen kann.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andersson, M. (1994): Sexual Selection. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Berglund, A.; Magnhagen, C.; Bisazza, A.; König, B.; Huntingford, F. (1993): Femalefemale competition over reproduction. Behav. Ecol. 4, 184–187.
Bro-Jorgensen, J. (2002): Overt female mate competition and preference for central males in a. lekking antelope. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 99, 9290–9293.
Byers, J. A. (1997): American Pronghorn: Social Adaptations and the Ghosts of Predators Past. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Byers, J. A.; Wiseman, P. A.; Jones, L.; Roffe, T. J. (2005): A. large cost of female mate sampling in pronghorn. Am. Nat. 166, 661–668.
Carranza, J. (1995): Female attraction by males versus sites in territorial rutting red deer. Anim. Behav. 50, 445–453.
Carranza, J.; Garcia-Munoz, A. J.; Vargas, J. D. (1995): Experimental shifting from harem defence to territoriality in rutting red deer. Anim. Behav. 49, 551–554.
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1989): Mammalian mating systems. Proc. R. Soc. London B. 236, 339–372.
Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Guinness, F. T.; Albon, S. D. (1982a): Red Deer: Behavior and Ecology of Two Sexes. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Guinness, F. T.; Albon, S. D. (1982b): Competition between female relatives in a. matrilocal mammal. Nature 300, 178–180.
Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Albon, S. D.; Guinness, F. E. (1984): Maternal dominance, breeding success, and birth sex ratios in red deer. Nature 308, 358–360.
Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Albon, S. D.; Guinness, F. E. (1986): Great expectations: dominance, breeding success and offspring sex ratios in red deer. Anim. Behav. 34, 460–471.
Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Rosé, K. E.; Guinness, F. E. (1997): Densityrelated changes in sexual selection in red deer. Proc. R. Soc. London B264, 1509–1516.
Cunningham, E. J. A.; Birkhead, T. R. (1998): Sex roles and sexual selection. Anim. Behav. 56, 1311–1321.
Foster, M. S. (1983): Disruption, dispersion, and dominance in lekbreeding birds. Am. Nat. 122, 53–72.
Gibson, R. M.; Guinness, F. E. (1980): Differential reproduction among red deer (Cervus elaphus) stags on Rhum. J. Anim. Ecol. 49, 199–208.
Griffin, A. S.; West, S. A. (2002): Kin selection: fact or fiction. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17, 15–21.
Haller, H. (2002). Der Rothirsch im Schweizerischen Nationalpark und dessen Umgebung. Eine alpine Population von Cervus elaphus zeitlich und raumlich dokumentiert. NationalparkForschung Schweiz No. 91.
Jennions, M. D.; Petrie, M. (1997): Variation in mate choice and mating preferences: a. review of causes and consequences. Biol. Rev. 72, 283–327.
McComb, K. (1991): Female choice for high roaring rates in red deer, Cervus elaphus. Anim. Behav. 41, 79–88.
McElligott, A. G.; Mattiangeli, V.; Mattiello, S.; Verga, M.; Reynolds, C. A.; Hayden, T. J. (1998): Fighting tactics of fallow bucks (Dama dama, Cervidae): reducing the risks of serious conflict. Ethology 104, 789–803.
McElligott, A. G.; Naulty, F.; Clarke, W. V.; Hayden, T. J. (2003): The somatic cost of reproduction: what determines reproductive effort in primeaged fallow bucks? Evol. Ecol. Res. 5, 1239–1250.
Merkel, M. (1995): Rothirsche in der Schweiz. Switzerland: BadenVerlag.
MilnerGulland, E. J.; Bukreeva, O. M.; Coulson, T.; Lushchekina, A. A.; Kholodova, M. V.; Bekenov, A. B.; Grachev, I. A. (2003): Reproductive collapse in saiga antelope harems. Nature 422, 135.
Pemberton, J. M.; Albon, S. D.; Guinness, F. E.; Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Dover, G. A. (1992): Behavioral estimates of male mating success tested by DNA fingerprinting in a. polygynous mammal. Behav. Ecol. 3, 66–75.
Preston, B. T.; Stevenson, I. R.; Pemberton, J. M.; Wilson, K. (2001): Dominant rams lose out by sperm depletion. Nature 409, 681–682.
Reby, D.; Hewison, M.; Izquierdo, M.; Pepin, D. (2001): Red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds discriminate between the roars of their current haremholder stag and those of neighbouring stags. Ethology 107, 951–959.
Rosenqvist, G.; Berglund, A. (1992): Is female sexual behaviour a. neglected topic? Trends Ecol. Evol. 7, 174–176.
Sanchez-Prieto, C. B.; Carranza, J.; Pulido, F. J. (2004): Reproductive behaviour in female Iberian red deer: effects of aggregation and dispersion of food. J. Mammalogy 85, 761–767.
Saunders, F. C.; McElligott, A. G.; Sari, K.; Hayden, T. J. (2005): Mating tactics of male feral goats (Capra hircus): risks and benefits. ActaEthol. 8, 103–110.
Thouless, C. R. (1990): Feeding competition between grazing red deer hinds. Anim. Behav. 40, 105–111.
Thouless, C. R.; Guinness, F. E. (1986): Conflict between red deer hinds: the winner always wins. Anim. Behav. 34, 1166–1171.
Veiberg, V.; Loe, L. E.; Mysterud, A.; Langvatn, R.; Stenseth, N. C. (2004): Social rank, feeding and winter weight loss in red deer: any evidence of interference competition? Oecologia 138, 135–142.
Yoccoz, N. G.; Mysterud, A.; Langvatn, R.; Stenseth, N. C. (2002): Ageand density-dependent reproductive effort in male red deer. Proc. R. Soc. London B269, 1523–1528.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bebié, N., McElligott, A.G. Female aggression in red deer: Does it indicate competition for mates?. Mamm Biol 71, 347–355 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2006.02.008
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2006.02.008