Fig. 8

Representative imagery and challenges from the under-ice deployment. Images transmitted from the Arctic deployment illustrate various factors affecting automatic detection. a Environmental factors degrading image quality: a blurred background (left) and a scene with inherently low contrast (right). Both original frames have a resolution of 1536 × 864 pixels. b System limitations: specular highlight on a target (left), motion blur (middle), and an out-of-focus frame (right). c Example of a failure detection, where under-ice features were incorrectly identified as a biological target. d Successfully identified zooplankton, such as copepods and jellyfish. e Unconfirmed detections, showing ambiguous biological targets that could not be reliably classified. The upper panels show cropped targets of varying sizes, whereas the lower panels display the corresponding full frame for context