1 Introduction

1.1 Background information

Sorghum exhibits great adaptability to Sudan's arid and semi-arid regions, characterized by significant water constraints, owing to its inherent drought resistance as a crop. Due to its reliance on rain, Sudanese sorghum farming is vulnerable to the unpredictable effects of global warming. According to studies, crop productivity is significantly impacted by climate change since variations in temperature and rainfall patterns have an impact on crop growth and yields [1,2,3]. However, sorghum production in Sudan has shown inconsistency and failed to reach its full potential [4]. The inconsistency can be attributed to multiple factors, such as swings in the climate [5], the prevalence of pests and diseases, and, particularly, financial constraints [6, 7]. In Sudan, many sorghum farmers lack proper access to credit and financial services, notwithstanding the significance of financial resources [8]. Among the obstacles preventing farmers from obtaining capital are high interest rates, strict collateral requirements, and the restricted accessibility of financial institutions in rural areas [9, 10]. The situation is exacerbated by the government's lack of investment and assistance for the agriculture sector, which is essential to raising productivity and guaranteeing food security [11].

This study aims to examine the influence of financial resources on sorghum farm productivity in Al-Qadarif State, focusing on the following research questions:

  • How do financial resources affect sorghum farm productivity in Al-Qadarif State, Sudan?

  • What are the specific financial challenges faced by sorghum farmers in the region?

  • How can improved access to financial resources enhance sorghum productivity and contribute to food security?

The distribution of financial resources has a substantial impact on agricultural productivity. They facilitate the acquisition of superior seeds, fertilizers, machinery, and other essential resources to optimize crop yield [9, 12]. Financial resources are even more important in this situation since they may help put adaptation measures like drought-resistant crop varieties, agricultural extension, irrigation infrastructure, and effective farming techniques into action [13,14,15]. Furthermore, financial resources play a critical role in the adoption of new agricultural technology [16, 17], which is essential for boosting output. Improved seed types, pest control methods, and automation are examples of new technologies that need capital investment, which is frequently out of the price range of Sudan's small-scale, low-resource farmers [6, 7]. The under-optimal productivity of sorghum in the area is mostly due to this difference in technological adoption.

Sudan's economic environment, which is marked by unstable policies and shifting market conditions, makes matters more difficult [18]. Price fluctuations for sorghum have an impact on farmers' ability to invest in their operations and implement better farming techniques by affecting their ability to make stable incomes [19,20,21]. Moreover, reference [12] asserts that policy frameworks in Sudan have historically failed to adequately address the particular difficulties encountered by sorghum farmers, notably regarding access to markets and financial support.

This study examines how financial resources affect sorghum farm productivity in Al-Qadarif State, Sudan. Sorghum farmers face a major issue due to the limited access to credit and financial services, which hinders their capacity to invest in farms, acquire critical inputs, and enhance agricultural techniques. We hypothesized that the impact of financial resources highly affects the sorghum productivity in Al-Qadarif.

1.2 Research objectives

The general objective of this research is to assess the influence of financial resources on the productivity of sorghum in Sudan, with a particular focus on Al-Qadarif State. The study has the following research questions:

  1. i.

    What demographic and financial characteristics of sorghum producers in Al-Qadarif State affect their access to and utilization of financial resources for sorghum production?

  2. ii.

    How do existing financial policies and initiatives in Al-Qadarif State impact sorghum farmers' access to financial resources and, consequently, their productivity?

  3. iii.

    What are the government policies' efficiency in providing subsidies for sorghum production in Al-Qadarif State?

1.3 Significance of the study

This study contributes to the existing literature by providing a detailed analysis of the relationship between financial resources and sorghum productivity in the specific context of Al-Qadarif State, Sudan. It uniquely explores the potential of integrating digital financial services with precision agriculture techniques to address both financial constraints and productivity challenges. Furthermore, it examines the critical intersection of financial accessibility and sorghum yield.

This study offers significant value for Al-Qadarif State and regions with analogous agroecological and socio-economic characteristics. While the sample size of 200 farmers may limit broad generalizability, it provides a nuanced, context-specific analysis of the interplay between financial resources and sorghum productivity. The findings illuminate the complex dynamics of agricultural finance in rain-fed farming systems within semi-arid regions, which are prevalent across sub-Saharan Africa. By elucidating the specific financial constraints and their impact on productivity in Al-Qadarif, this research contributes to the growing body of literature on localized agricultural economics in developing nations. Moreover, the study's focus on the potential integration of digital financial services and precision agriculture techniques offers a novel perspective on addressing both financial accessibility and productivity challenges in resource-constrained environments. These insights can inform targeted policy interventions and agricultural development strategies not only in Al-Qadarif but also in other regions facing similar challenges of limited financial access and the need for sustainable intensification of staple crop production.

1.4 Literature review

1.4.1 Sorghum production in Sudan

Sorghum is Sudan’s major food crop [19, 22] and is essential to the nation’s agricultural economy and food security. Numerous facets of sorghum production, including agronomic techniques, water management, technical developments in harvesting, genetic variety, and the effects of climate change, have been the subject of recent studies [11], which have drawn attention to a substantial body of research that examines how sorghum responds to fertilization in the Blue Nile State when it is rainfed, highlighting the crucial roles that phosphorus and nitrogen play in raising yields. Additionally, reference [23] highlighted the beneficial effects of rainwater harvesting systems on sub-tropical desert sorghum grain yields in Sudan, highlighting the significance of effective water management strategies in arid areas. A recent study has also focused on technological adjustments in the agricultural processes of sorghum production. A study conducted in [22, 24] on the effectiveness of combine harvesters for sorghum in automated rainfed schemes showed the potential for increasing harvesting efficiency and lowering post-harvest losses. In terms of genetics, research [25] on the molecular characterization of Sudanese sorghum accessions provides insight into the racial classification and agronomic qualities that are critical for breeding initiatives targeted at enhancing crop resilience and production. The development of sorghum cultivars that can tolerate environmental stressors and satisfy the needs of an expanding population depends heavily on this study. Furthermore, the economic analysis of sorghum production in Al-Qadarif State under various farming systems [19] highlights the need for policies that support sustainable agricultural development by illuminating the sustainability and profitability of conservation agriculture in comparison to conventional farming practices. Research on the effects of climate change on Sudan’s sorghum productivity has drawn interest in addition to agronomic and technological studies. The work of [1] highlights the susceptibility of sorghum production to climatic variability and the pressing need for adaptive solutions to counteract these effects. It examines the trends in climate change and their impact on sorghum productivity over 45 years in Al-Qadarif and Gezira States. Mohammed [2] also carried out an economic analysis of how climate change might affect the production of sorghum in Al-Qadarif State, highlighting the important role that climate conditions have in influencing agricultural productivity and food security. Together, these studies shed light on the various difficulties Sudan faces in producing sorghum, including water constraints, environmental stressors, and the need for better farming methods and technology.

1.4.2 Role of financing in agriculture

A major factor in agricultural productivity is financial resources [26, 27]. By adopting enhanced agricultural technologies, investing in high-quality inputs, and managing risks more skillfully, farmers might potentially increase crop yields through the use of credit and financial services [28, 29]. However, smallholder farmers in Sudan, especially those who grow sorghum, have little access to banking services [30]. Farmers’ access to critical finance is hindered by high interest rates, collateral restrictions, and the restricted reach of financial institutions in rural areas [20, 31]. Research has demonstrated the significance of financial resources in acquiring better seeds, fertilizers, and equipment, which are all essential for augmenting crop yields [9, 32]. Furthermore, according to [33, 34], financial resources are required for the implementation of climate change adaptation strategies such as irrigation systems and drought-resistant agricultural types. Inadequate financial assistance significantly impedes the adoption of enhanced farming technologies and practices, hence directly affecting sorghum productivity.

1.4.3 Economic theories and models in agriculture

The primary theoretical framework employed in this study is rooted in the Microeconomic Theory of Farm Household Behavior. This theory provides a robust foundation for analyzing how farmers, as economic agents, make decisions about resource allocation, production, and technology adoption within the constraints they face, including financial limitations. The focus on microeconomic behavior allows us to understand how sorghum farmers in Sudan make decisions based on their goals, available resources, and market conditions, particularly in the context of financial access and its influence on productivity [35].

While Utility Theory and Productivity (Input–Output) Theory are indeed relevant and are referenced to provide additional context, the core of our analysis is based on the microeconomic behavior of farm households. Specifically, we explore how financial constraints impact decision-making processes, technology adoption, and, ultimately, productivity outcomes.

Understanding the dynamics of agricultural productivity and the function of financing requires an awareness of several economic theories and models. According to the notion of agricultural credit usage, for example, a farmer’s capacity to employ agricultural inputs and embrace new technologies is significantly influenced by their availability to finance [9]. According to the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) [36, 37], perceived utility and simplicity of use have an impact on the adoption of new technologies. This idea is consistent with TAM. The Microeconomic theory of farm household behavior is another pertinent idea. According to [38, 39], farmers make production decisions based on their goals, available resources, and market conditions. This idea can be utilized to comprehend the influence of financial limitations on the decision-making process of sorghum growers in Sudan.

1.5 Gaps in literature

There are significant gaps in the literature, even though it offers insights into the production of sorghum in Sudan and the function of financing in agriculture. Firstly, there is a lack of empirical evidence about the precise effect of financial constraints on the productivity of sorghum in Sudan, especially in areas such as Al-Qadarif State. Second, not enough research has been done on the relationship that exists between financial resources and the adoption of climate-resilient agricultural methods in sorghum cultivation. To develop more useful agricultural policies and funding schemes, further thorough research is required that combines economic theory with the actual aspects of Sudanese sorghum growing.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study area

The research was carried out in Al-Qadarif State, located in eastern Sudan. In Fig. 1, Al-Qadarif State is situated in the Sub-Saharan Africa region. Located in the east region of Sudan, this state is of considerable size, spanning around 78,228 square kilometers. The location is defined by the geographical coordinates of 33°–37′ E for longitude and 12°–16′ N for latitude, with an altitude of 600 m above sea level. Sennar geographically surrounds the state to the south, Kassala and Khartoum to the north, Gezira to the west, and Ethiopia to the east. Al-Qadarif is famous for its vast agricultural grounds and rain-fed farming activities, focusing mostly on cultivating sorghum and sesame crops. The primary sources of revenue for the state are rain-fed agriculture and the cultivation of gum Arabic. The OCHA organization’s 2021 report states that the population of Al-Qadarif State is 2,525,073 inhabitants. The climate in Al-Qadarif is characterized as semi-arid, meaning it receives limited rainfall. Additionally, the region employs an agroecological production method. The soil in the area is classified as Vertosols, which are characterized by the presence of heavy, deep, and crumbling clay [40]. The amount of annual rainfall in Al-Qadarif varies between 200 and 800 mm, with a mean amount of 600 mm [41], with a 30 °C yearly average temperature [42]. Al-Qadarif State in Sudan is renowned for its abundant rainfall, making it the most significant rain-fed agricultural region in the country. It has an average cultivated area of 7.9 million acres, with around 160,000 farmers, 150,000 of whom are small farmers. It significantly contributes to Sudan’s sorghum, sesame, maize, and gum Arabic production and accounts for around 65% of food security in Sudan. The crop-growing season, which aligns with the rainy season, runs from June to October. The area boasts a sophisticated rain-fed mechanized farming system that has been in operation for over 77 years. The farming techniques employed here include zero tillage, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, crop rotation, and the planting of drought-resistant and early-maturing crops.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Map of the study area [43]

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2.2 Demographic characteristics of the respondents

A total of 200 households were surveyed, whereby male responses comprised about 82% of the total, with a notable lean towards them in the gender distribution (18% female). This difference indicates a gender imbalance in the sample. This may be a result of survey response patterns or the demographics of the agricultural industry in the region under study. The ages of the respondents were divided into three categories, with the bulk falling within the 20–70 age range. More particularly, 10% of the people are in the 20–30 age group, 71% are in the 31–60 age group, and 19% are in the 61 and above age group. The majority of them (71%) are between the ages of 31–60 years compared to the younger age group, which constitutes 10%, while 19% are over sixty. The distribution of respondents suggests that older and middle-aged persons make up the majority. This indicates that younger people are either underrepresented in this poll or are not as involved in agriculture.

2.3 Data collection and questionnaire design

The study employed a mixed-methods approach to gather comprehensive data on the financial characteristics of sorghum farmers in Al-Qadarif State, Sudan, during the 2022 season. Primary data were collected through a structured questionnaire distributed to 200 sorghum farmers, while secondary data were acquired from existing literature.

The questionnaire design incorporated both qualitative and quantitative elements, utilizing multiple-choice questions and Likert scales to capture nuanced responses. The Likert scale, ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree," allowed respondents to express their level of agreement with various statements. Prior to full-scale implementation, a beta test was conducted with 35 farmers to evaluate the questionnaire's effectiveness, resulting in refinements to enhance clarity and relevance.

While convenience sampling was initially used to identify participants, several strategies were implemented to improve sample representativeness and mitigate potential biases. These included stratified random sampling based on sub-districts and farm sizes, diverse timing of data collection (weekdays and weekends), multiple entry points to avoid over-representation from single networks, soft quotas for key demographic variables, and rigorous verification of inclusion criteria.

The data collection process, conducted in January and February 2022, coincided with the conclusion of the harvesting season. This timing allowed farmers to recall pertinent information accurately but also introduced potential recall bias. The process commenced with an informed consent statement outlining the project's objectives and assuring confidentiality.

Despite these methodological precautions, several potential sources of bias were acknowledged, including self-selection bias, recall bias, social desirability bias, interviewer bias, and temporal bias. To address these, the study employed strategies such as clear communication of purpose, use of neutral language, data triangulation, and inclusion of open-ended questions.

The comprehensive approach aimed to gather robust data on farmers' financial attributes, practices, challenges, and needs to be related to financial resources in sorghum productivity. Implementing these strategies and openly acknowledging potential biases, the study sought to enhance the validity and reliability of its findings within the context of sorghum farming in Al-Qadarif State.

This methodological framework strives to provide a transparent and rigorous foundation for analyzing the financial characteristics of sorghum farmers in the region, contributing valuable insights to the broader understanding of agricultural finance in similar contexts.

2.4 Sorghum production mathematical model

This study focuses on how financial factors, demographics, and education affect the productivity of sorghum growing in Al-Qadarif State, Sudan, which is the major contributor to the national sorghum production. Using questionnaires explicitly created for this purpose, the required data were collected, recorded, and analyzed using the Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) [44] method to estimate the model parameters (αj and β values) that maximize the likelihood of observing the given sample data. This involves calculating the probability of each observed productivity level for a given set of predictor values and finding the parameter values that make the observed data most likely.

The dependent variable in the study is the productivity of sorghum growing, which is categorized into different levels. These levels represent different categories of productivity outcomes (e.g., low, medium, high). The various independent variables identified in the study like financial resources and other factors. The general form of linear regression is as follows:

$$\text{Log}\left(\frac{P\left(Y<j\right)}{P\left(Y>J\right)}\right)=\alpha J-(\beta_{1} {X}_{1}+\beta_{2} {X}_{2} + \cdots + \beta_{n} {X}_{n}).$$

In this equation, P (Y ≤ j) is the probability of the productivity level being less than or equal to a certain category.

β1, β2, …, βn are coefficients for predictor variables, while X1, X2, …, Xn. are predictor variables, “αj” are threshold parameters (cut points) for each category “j” of the outcome variable.

The independent variables are as follows:

X1: Age, X2: Gender, X3: Education level, X4: Experience in agriculture, X5: Financial challenges, X6: Farm size in (h).

To elaborate on how the independent variables affect the response variable (sorghum productivity) in light of the discussed theory, we can expand the theoretical section as follows:

Age (X1): Age may affect production via experience and physical capabilities. Veteran farmers may possess greater experience, potentially resulting in enhanced yield. Nevertheless, elderly farmers may encounter physical constraints, which could diminish productivity.

Gender (X2): Gender can influence production owing to disparities in resource access, cultural norms, or agricultural methods between male and female farmers.

Education level (X3): Elevated education levels are typically correlated with enhanced awareness of contemporary agricultural methods, improved decision-making capabilities, and perhaps increased output.

Increased expertise in agriculture generally results in improved farming techniques, enhanced resource management, and perhaps greater yield.

Increased financial constraints may restrict access to inputs, advanced technologies, and resources, potentially diminishing productivity.

Farm size (X6): Larger farm sizes may facilitate economies of scale, potentially enhancing productivity. Nonetheless, extremely big farms may encounter managerial difficulties that could affect productivity.

Coefficients (β) indicate the change in the log odds of being in a higher productivity category (versus all lower categories) for a one-unit increase in the predictor variable, holding other variables constant.

The sign of each coefficient indicates the direction of the association between predictors and the probability of being in a higher productivity level.

Threshold parameters (αj) differentiate between the categories of the outcome variable, with each cut point indicating the value of the linear predictor that separates two adjacent categories.

The outcome variable in the provided equation is the productivity level of sorghum growing, which is represented by different categories (e.g., low, medium, high). The equation models the probability of the productivity level being less than or equal to a certain category P(Y ≤ j), relative to being in a higher category.

Figure 2 illustrates the principal independent variables affecting sorghum productivity in Al-Qadarif State, Sudan, as determined by the study's ordinal logistic regression model. The upper part delineates six major factors: Age (X1), Gender (X2), Education Level (X3), Agricultural Experience (X4), Financial Constraints (X5), and Farm Size (X6). These variables are represented as equivalent entities to signify their role as predictor variables in the model. The unidirectional arrow signifies the proposed causal relationship between these factors and the dependent variable, Sorghum Productivity, depicted at the bottom of the diagram. This visual representation highlights the intricate interplay of variables examined in the research, demonstrating how diverse socio-demographic and economic attributes of sorghum growers may affect productivity levels. The diagram's structure corresponds with the study's theoretical framework, which asserts that agricultural productivity depends on various interconnected elements. This framework aims to clarify the complex nature of agricultural productivity in Al-Qadarif State, highlighting its reliance on a variety of personal, educational, experiential, and economic elements.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Source: authors’ development

Factors influencing sorghum productivity in Al-Qadarif State, Sudan.

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3 Results

3.1 Demographic factors affecting Sorghum production

Questionnaires were used to determine the relationships between financial resources and sorghum productivity in Al-Qadarif State. This analysis uses data from 200 questionnaires completed by farmers in the study area. The descriptive statistics of the socioeconomic characteristics are shown in Table 1. Our study, which looked at the factors that affect sorghum production, used several different explanatory variables. Our 200-entity dataset was shown through detailed descriptive statistics that showed off its traits and variety. The participants were between the ages of 18 and 70, with 45 being the average age. A detailed knowledge of the impact of age on productivity is shown in references [45,46,47], which highlight the importance of demographic considerations in agricultural output. Also, this finding agreed with [48], which decided that the aging trend in the agricultural workforce is a global issue, with fewer young people entering agriculture and an increasing number of older farmers nearing retirement. Sorghum is mostly farmed by men, according to statistics. According to the mean gender variable value, 82% of respondents are male. The low standard deviation of 0.39 indicates a male farmer bias and significant male involvement. From 0 to 1, this binary variable, with a high male frequency, includes both genders. As this demographic insight into gender composition shows, sorghum production requires gender-focused assessments and targeted interventions for men and women. Evidence from studies like [27, 29, 49] shows that gender equality and easy access to capital are crucial factors in raising agricultural output. The different levels of education among the participants—25 had never been to school, 75 had finished primary school, 60 had completed secondary school, and 40 had finished post-secondary school—showed the farmers’ varied educational experiences. This result aligns with [50, 51], which shows that individuals with higher levels of education are more likely to adopt innovative farming techniques, embrace technological advancements, and make informed financial decisions in agriculture.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of socioeconomic factors affecting sorghum production
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3.2 Factors that affect the productivity of Sorghum

The results in Table 2 show the logistic regression coefficient of − 1.00, standard deviation error of 0.30, t-value of − 3.333, and p-value of less than 0.001, showing that financial problems have a big negative impact on the sorghum output. According to this study, farmers’ production goes down when they have money problems. Farmers cannot afford key inputs, cutting-edge farming tools, or efficient farming methods because of the main bad effects. Because of these limits, farmers cannot easily adjust to pests, diseases, and climate change, which hurts their ability to be productive and last. According to the study, farmers’ ability to deal with limited funds is very important for keeping and increasing agricultural output. Similar results have been reported in [48, 52, 53], all of which emphasize the critical role that financial accessibility plays in agricultural productivity. Because of limited funds, tailored interventions such as loan facilities, financial literacy, and subsidies are needed to help sorghum growers in Al-Qadarif State adapt and do well. Loans are essential for buying inputs like seeds and fertilizers, significantly boosting sorghum crop productivity, depending on loan terms like interest rates and repayment schedules. Farmers with favorable loan terms can invest in advanced technologies, possibly achieving higher yields than those with less advantageous terms [54, 55]. Savings act as a financial safety net, allowing farmers to invest in crops without loan repayment pressures, leading to potentially higher productivity for those with more savings and more cautious investments for those with fewer savings [56, 57]. In developing areas, remittances provide a vital financial source, helping farmers improve practices or recover from events like droughts, especially in high-emigration communities [58]. Analyzing the impact of these financial resources on sorghum yield through regression models could clarify their contributions to productivity [59].

Table 2 Factors affecting agricultural production in Al-Qadarif State
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A coefficient of 0.05, a standard deviation error of 0.02, and a p-value of 0.012 for agricultural experience show that the probability of increased agricultural output improves marginally but considerably with each additional year of farming experience. This result emphasizes how important it is to have knowledge and skills that have been acquired over time to increase production output and efficiency. The coefficient of 0.10, p-value of 0.045, and standard deviation error of 0.05 show that farm size and agricultural output are linked in a good way. Even though the effect was small, it shows that bigger farms may be able to produce more because of economies of scale or better control of resources. These numbers show that optimizing agricultural output needs a large operation and a lot of knowledge. Al-Qadarif State may be able to boost output by making farms bigger and giving people more experience through education or training.

3.3 Policy suggestion on Sorghum production in Sudan

A recent poll that sought to determine the main areas where farmers felt that government action was essential revealed several recommendations that highlight the urgent requirements of the agriculture industry.

The finding in Fig. 3 revealed the proposal for subsidies on sorghum seed and agricultural inputs is at the forefront of the recommendations. In total, 78% of respondents identified this suggestion as a crucial area for government action, indicating the considerable support this idea received. As a crucial first step toward improving small-scale farmers’ agricultural output and financial sustainability, lowering their cost burden is widely acknowledged, as seen by the high proportion. Studies like [60], which attest to the beneficial impact of subsidies on raising agricultural productivity, lend weight to this viewpoint. Reference [61] provides additional evidence supporting the need for this kind of funding to increase agricultural productivity. Furthermore, reference [62] emphasizes how important tailored subsidies are to maintaining smallholder farmers’ financial sustainability. Improving access to credit and financial services, with a focus on rural areas, is the second most popular recommendation, having received support from 74% of participants. The elevated proportion suggests a keen understanding of the necessity for improved financial systems that enable farmers to undertake major investments and implement novel farming innovations. Addressing the significance of financial inclusion for the rural agricultural sector, references [63,64,65] also accord with the poll’s conclusions. In total, 55% of respondents approved of the use of extension and training services to inform farmers about modern farming techniques. This significant number emphasizes how knowledge transfer propels agricultural innovation and productivity. More research, such as [66,67,68], highlights how educational programs can promote innovation in agriculture.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Policy suggestion on sorghum production in Al-Qadarif State

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4 Discussion

This research examines how financial resources affect sorghum agriculture productivity in Sudan, concentrating on Al-Qadarif State. The results show a significant gender gap in the demographics of the 200 farmers who participated in our study; 82% of the respondents were men. Either the survey’s methodology or the underlying gender dynamics in the region’s agriculture sector might explain this discrepancy. The results of the study are consistent with the findings of S Nelson, I Sisto, and E Crowley 2012, who reported that women in agriculture face significant constraints in accessing productive resources, markets, and services compared to men [69]. In the US, women account for 36% of all farmers but face challenges like limited access to land and capital and are underrepresented as decision-makers and primary farmers [70]. Furthermore, JL Gibbons 2023 has reported that women-run farms globally produce 20–30% less due to gender-specific obstacles like lack of access to land, financing, markets, and agricultural training [71].

The majority of respondents were middle-aged, with a concentration in the 31–60-year group, according to the age distribution. It appears that there may be a lack of younger people in the agricultural workforce, either because they are not involved, or they are not as active as older people, as indicated by this age gap. These findings are consistent with JSTOR and others in 2017, who found that the aging trend is evident in the agricultural sector, with the average age of farm producers in the US at 57.5 [72]; in Europe, also, female farmers skew older, with 42% being over 65 years of age compared to 29.2% of male farmers [73]. Not only that, but 46% of the respondents had just completed elementary school, which begs the issue of how much of an impact education has on farming methods and technological advancements. Among those aged 51–60, our results show a statistically significant correlation between age and agricultural output.

This group’s increased productivity highlights the benefit of accumulated experience in agriculture. The opposite is true for people over the age of 60, whose negative productivity coefficient may indicate diminishing returns as a result of variables like deteriorating physical capacity or antiquated farming methods. This result is similar to [74, 75], which revealed that the challenges in attracting young people to agriculture include lower wages, economic difficulties, and limited governmental support compared to other industries. Both male and female respondents’ perspectives on gender’s effect on agricultural output were noteworthy. To ensure fair access to resources and opportunities, gender-inclusive measures should be prioritized in agricultural development.

Recent scholarly findings are in good alignment with the statistical analysis given, which examines agricultural productivity in connection to farm size and farming experience. Our discovery that larger farms may provide better outputs due to economies of scale and more efficient resource utilization is echoed by [76], which supports the beneficial effects of increased farm size on agricultural sustainability and productivity. The influence of farm size might vary based on management approaches and the particular agricultural situation, according to the study done by [77], which contrasts this with the efficacy of smaller farms in obtaining high yields and biodiversity. The notion that farm size greatly influences agricultural efficiency is supported by [78], which offers a more comprehensive understanding of the size–effectiveness dynamic. Furthermore, the idea that even modest improvements in farm size might result in considerable productivity increases is supported by [79], which provides specific data from Bihar, India. Together, these studies highlight the complex relationship that exists between farm size, experience, and productivity, corroborating our results that the best agricultural output is achieved through a combination of increased operational scale and cumulative farming experience. Based on the comparative research, it appears that increasing farm size and improving farmers’ knowledge and abilities through education or training could be key factors in increasing agricultural output, particularly in areas such as Al-Qadarif State.

Productivity was positively correlated with the education level, especially with university education, demonstrating the importance of formal education in improving farming methods and comprehending market dynamics. The negative coefficient for participants in this level of schooling suggests the lack of a suitable agricultural education at the elementary school level. This finding underscores the importance of early exposure to agricultural concepts and practices to foster interest, knowledge, and skills in the field. This result agreed with [80, 81], which highlighted that it is crucial to introduce young learners to agricultural concepts and practices at an early age to spark their interest and develop their knowledge and skills. The study elucidates that financial and technological aspects play an important part in agricultural output. A critical component that emerged was the importance of financial accessibility, particularly about subsidies and loans, highlighting the necessity for financial inclusion within the agricultural sector. These findings align with prior research, emphasizing the vital role of financial inclusion in agriculture. They advocate for customized financial products, digital solutions, educational initiatives, and partnerships to empower farmers economically and foster sustainable development in the agricultural industry [82, 83]. Possible obstacles to technology adoption, such as a lack of knowledge or accessibility concerns, are indicated by the negative coefficient for using current equipment. This necessitates measures to enhance farmers’ access to financial aid and technological resources. This finding correlated with several studies and reports focusing on barriers to the adoption of new agricultural technologies in rural areas and the importance of enhancing farmers’ access to financial aid and technological resources [84,85,86]. The survey’s policy recommendations, such as subsidies for sorghum seed and agricultural inputs, highlight the critical need for immediate government action to alleviate the financial constraints faced by small-scale farmers. To improve farm productivity and sustainability in Sudan, it is important to integrate financial support, education, and infrastructure development. This will help increase access to credit and financial services, especially in rural areas, and promote extension and training services.

On the other hand, the impacts of unmeasured variables such as climate variability, soil fertility, and access to technology are crucial considerations, as they significantly influence crop yields both independently and in conjunction with financial resources. Climate variability affects water availability and pest dynamics, which are critical for crop health and yield; financial resources enable farmers to mitigate these effects through investments in irrigation systems and crop insurance [87]. Soil fertility, influencing nutrient availability and soil structure, also plays a foundational role in productivity, bolstered by financial resources for soil amendments and fertilizers [88]. Access to technology, including precision agriculture tools and high-yield seed varieties, further enhances productivity, contingent on farmers' financial capability for adoption [89]. Institutional support and market access are pivotal, providing infrastructural, regulatory, and market opportunities crucial for agricultural outputs [90]. These dynamics underscore a complex interplay where financial resources, environmental factors, and institutional frameworks converge to shape agricultural productivity. However, gaps remain in understanding these holistic influences within Al-Qadarif State. Regional political stability, governmental policies, and global market trends serve as potential confounders shaping local farming practices, while social and economic disparities impact resource access and skew productivity outcomes [91]. Addressing systemic gender biases, cultural norms, and the dual burdens on women in agriculture is essential to explain gender gaps in participation and productivity [92]. Educational levels influence the adoption of advanced farming techniques, while demographic shifts such as rural–urban migration impact future agricultural sustainability [93]. Caution is warranted in interpreting logistic regression coefficients, as they indicate relationships but do not establish causality, contingent on study power and sample size. Effective policy interventions, such as subsidies and training, must be critically evaluated to ensure they address underlying issues and integrate financial, educational, and infrastructural improvements for sustainable agriculture in Al-Qadarif State.

5 Conclusions

The present study underscores the critical role of financial accessibility in enhancing sorghum productivity, pointing out that better financial resources enable farmers to adopt cutting-edge farming technologies and practices. This leads to notable improvements in sorghum yield. Additionally, the study brings to light several demographic and socioeconomic factors that influence agricultural output across different locations. Notably, a significant gender disparity with an 82% male majority was observed, prompting a re-evaluation of the survey’s methodology or a deeper look into the gender dynamics within the agricultural sector. This apparent imbalance underscores the necessity of implementing policies that promote gender equality, ensuring equitable distribution of resources and access to agricultural opportunities for all. Furthermore, the study reveals an age distribution among respondents that leans heavily towards the 31–60 age range. This finding indicates a potential shortfall in attracting younger individuals to the agriculture sector, posing potential threats to the sustainability and vitality of the agricultural labor force in the long term. The role of education in farming efficiency was also highlighted; notably, half of the respondents had only achieved an elementary level of education. The correlation identified between higher productivity levels and educational attainment underlines the urgent need for the development of educational programs specifically designed to support agricultural advancement. Compounding this, the study delves into the nuanced relationship between age and productivity. It finds a productivity peak within the 31–60 age range, followed by a decline, suggesting that while experience is crucial for farming success, physical limitations or adherence to outdated agricultural practices may diminish productivity as one ages. This observation stresses the value of lifelong learning and the continual adoption of innovative agricultural methods to ensure enduring high productivity levels throughout a farmer’s career. The study emphasizes the critical roles of technology and financial support in boosting agricultural output. It highlights the importance of financial inclusion for small-scale farmers, notably through loans and subsidies, to help them achieve greater production and sustainability. It also underlines the negative influence of old farming technology on agricultural output, arguing that technical developments and education are critical components in changing farming techniques and increasing productivity.

6 Future research

For future research, it is recommended that factors influencing the recruitment of younger individuals into the agricultural workforce be investigated. Such studies could explore the perceptions, motivations, and barriers that affect young people's participation in agriculture, as well as potential strategies for attracting and retaining younger individuals in the industry. It is also suggested that research be conducted on the role of financial accessibility and technological advancement in improving agricultural productivity. This study could focus on the impact of financial support, such as subsidies and loans, on small-scale farmers, as well as the barriers to technology adoption and potential solutions to enhance farmers' access to modern agricultural equipment and resources. Our study emphasizes the importance of increasing financial support for innovative farming practices, especially in sorghum cultivation. Mobile finance and green finance offer potential ways to empower farmers and deserve further research. It is essential to understand how these financial innovations influence farmers' decisions to adopt new technologies. Conducting longitudinal studies to examine the long-term effects of mobile and green finance on yield optimization, environmental sustainability, and farm profitability would greatly benefit both academic research and policy-making. The study also revealed areas that require improvement for more inclusive participation, such as the gender gap. A study specifically focused on the underlying gender dynamics in the agriculture sector is recommended to investigate further the reasons behind the significant gender gap observed in the survey. This study could delve into the cultural, social, and economic factors that contribute to this gender gap and explore potential solutions for promoting gender equality in agriculture. The results of the study can inform government officials about the Al-Qadarif state and other production areas and consider them as potential areas for agricultural production. The government should also pay attention to investing in the Al-Qadarif state, which would contribute to agricultural production and job creation, improve the local economy, and increase food security. Based on the questionnaire results, a comprehensive plan is proposed that strengthens infrastructure, improves education, and provides financial support to increase agricultural sustainability and productivity in the Al-Qadarif state.