1 Introduction

In recent years, Sub-Saharan Africa has faced an intricate web of challenges, with the converging impacts of COVID-19 pandemic and the escalating effects of climate change casting a formidable shadow over the region's agricultural sector and food security [1]. For instance, findings have shown that,

COVID-19 pandemic's ramifications have echoed across the food system, profoundly affecting individuals and agricultural production, particularly both crop and livestock farming. It has led to restrictions on agricultural work, shifts in livelihoods, food safety, and changes in public policies [2]. In South Africa, it has been observed that agriculture confronts various challenges arising from global shifts in the environment, economy, and sociopolitical landscape [3]. Sub-Saharan Africa smallholder farming communities are particularly susceptible to the impacts of climate change, given their heavy dependence on crop production systems sensitive to climate conditions. Other Factors contributing to vulnerability include diminishing soil fertility, land degradation, institutional weakening, insufficient capital resources, limited market access, and a heightened prevalence of diseases [3]. The simultaneous impact of climate change and COVID-19 pandemic poses a heightened global threat to agriculture and food security, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa [4]. Research in South Asia reveals climate change's disruptive effects on agriculture, including altered temperature, precipitation, and increased occurrences of floods, droughts, and heat stress. The pandemic exacerbates existing challenges in food security, nutrition, and livelihoods for farmers in South Asia [1]. It is anticipated that the combined effects of COVID-19 and climate change will synergistically impact agriculture and productivity. However, there is limited reporting on the synergic impacts of climate change and COVID-19 pandemic on the agricultural sector. This review paper addresses the gap in understanding the combined impact of COVID-19 and climate change on the agricultural sector and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa.

COVID-19 compounds the impact of climate change, risking food and water security in Sub-Saharan Africa and the world at large. Thus, calling for strengthening smallholders' adaptive capacity, especially in remote areas through cooperative efforts, international collaboration to assist smallholders in adopting climate-smart agriculture, reducing emissions, and mitigating climate effects, fostering productivity, food security, poverty alleviation, and sustainable development [4]. The unprecedented nature of these dual crises demands a nuanced examination of their synergistic repercussions, as well as a focused exploration of strategies that foster resilience and adaptation within the affected communities.

COVID-19 pandemic, a global health crisis with far-reaching socio-economic implications, has disrupted supply chains, restricted mobility, and intensified vulnerabilities within the agricultural domain. In Italy, the study revealed challenges in the agricultural sector and food security during lockdown, as people were not engaged in production and various aspects of the food chain, including restaurant activities [5]. Notably, during the three-month emergency, the food industry faced more significant challenges than farms. A substantial percentage (82%–84%) of industrialists reported difficulties, contrasting with 51%–52% of farmers. Both the livestock sector and crop production were adversely affected, experiencing decreased sales [5]. Similar scenario is expected to be seen in Sub-Saharan Africa. A study in South Africa and Tanzania, part of Sub-Saharan Africa, revealed that COVID-19 restrictions disrupted agricultural supply chains, increasing storage time for produce, reducing income, and limiting labor availability. Small-scale farmers with diverse systems were less affected, while larger-scale farmers accessed capital better. Extreme climate events compounded challenges, especially for smaller-scale and emerging farmers [6]. Simultaneously, climate change continues to exert its toll on Sub-Saharan Africa, manifesting through erratic weather patterns, prolonged droughts, and extreme events that threaten the very foundation of agrarian livelihoods [7]. As these challenges intersect, their combined impact poses an existential threat to the region's ability to sustainably produce food and ensure the well-being of its growing population. While numerous studies have examined the individual effects of either COVID-19 or climate change, there is limited research on their synergistic impacts, particularly in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa. This paper aims to bridge this gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of how the intersection of these two challenges exacerbates vulnerabilities within the agricultural sector, with potential implications for food security in the region.

1.1 Motivation for this review and problem being addressed

The motivation behind this study stems from the urgent need to address the complex and interrelated challenges facing Sub-Saharan Africa's agricultural sector. The convergence of COVID-19 pandemic and climate change poses unprecedented threats to food security and livelihoods in the region. Understanding the synergistic effects of these dual crises is essential for developing effective adaptation strategies and resilience-building measures. By elucidating the combined impact of COVID-19 and climate change, this research seeks to inform policymakers, stakeholders, and practitioners about the urgent need for coordinated action to mitigate vulnerabilities and promote sustainable food production in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The review paper addresses the pressing issue of how the simultaneous impact of COVID-19 and climate change exacerbates vulnerabilities within Sub-Saharan Africa's agricultural sector and threatens food security. COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted supply chains, restricted mobility, and intensified vulnerabilities, while climate change has manifested through erratic weather patterns and extreme events. These challenges intersect, creating compounding effects that pose existential threats to the region's ability to sustainably produce food. By analyzing existing literature and conducting a thorough review, this paper aims to shed light on the multifaceted implications of COVID-19 and climate change on agriculture and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa, thereby informing evidence-based policy recommendations and resilience-building strategies.

1.2 Objectives of the review paper

The paper focused on the following key objectives; firstly, Understanding the synergistic Impact by exploring how the dual challenges of COVID-19 and climate change amplify vulnerabilities within the agricultural sector, creating compounding effects on food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. Secondly, assessing current adaptation strategies by valuating the existing resilience-building measures and adaptation strategies implemented at local, national, and regional levels to mitigate the adverse effects on agriculture and food security. On the hand highlighting Innovations and best practices through showcase innovative approaches and successful initiatives that demonstrate effective adaptation and resilience-building in the face of concurrent challenges, offering potential models for broader implementation. Lastly, policy recommendations by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers, stakeholders, and practitioners to formulate and implement sustainable policies that foster resilience, mitigate vulnerabilities, and promote long-term food security in Sub-Saharan Africa.

2 Significancy and rationale

This review is of paramount importance, addressing the simultaneous threats of COVID-19 pandemic and climate change on Sub-Saharan Africa's agricultural sector and food security. Recognizing the region's unique vulnerabilities, the paper comprehensively analyzes the combined impact of these crises. It seeks to unravel complex dynamics, providing a multidimensional approach to identify vulnerable regions, assess adaptation strategies, showcase successful innovations, and offer evidence-based policy recommendations. Emphasizing resilience and adaptation, the review aligns with the global recognition of interconnected challenges. The paper aims to guide policymakers, practitioners, and researchers in developing targeted interventions, contributing valuable insights for a more resilient and adaptive future in Sub-Saharan Africa.

3 Materials and methods

3.1 Research protocol

The search question for this review paper was; What is the combined impact of COVID-19 and climate change on the agricultural sector and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa? With the following sub-questions: How do COVID-19 restrictions affect agricultural supply chains and food production in Sub-Saharan Africa? In what ways does climate change exacerbate the challenges faced by the agricultural sector in the region?, What adaptation strategies have been employed in response to the compounded challenges, and how effective are they in enhancing resilience?, Are there successful innovations or best practices that showcase resilience in the face of these challenges?, What evidence-based policy recommendations can be formulated to strengthen resilience and adaptation in the agricultural sector of Sub-Saharan Africa?. These questions aim to guide the systematic search for relevant literature and provide a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between COVID-19, climate change, and their impact on agriculture and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa.

3.2 Literature search strategy

The paper involved conducting a systematic search of peer-reviewed articles, reports, and relevant documents published between a specified time range 2020–2023 in electronic databases namely; PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google scholar and Agricola. Keywords were used for enhancing search strategies. The Keywords used included the following; COVID-19, climate change, agriculture, food security, resilience, and adaptation.

3.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The inclusion criteria encompassed studies conducted within Sub-Saharan Africa, specifically examining the effects of COVID-19 and climate change on both the agricultural sector and food security within the timeframe of 2020–2023 for COVID-19 and 2003–2023 for climate change (Table 1). This consideration was made because COVID-19 pandemic began to be reported at the end of 2019, with intense lockdowns implemented in 2020 in most sub-Saharan-African countries. Exclusion criteria involved studies that did not meet these specified parameters or lacked adequate methodological rigor. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were guided and performed as suggested by [8].

Table 1 Short information on the inclusion and exclusion criteria for this study
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3.4 Data extraction and quality assessment

We developed a standardized data extraction form to capture pertinent information, including study design, geographic focus, key findings, and methodological details, ensuring consistency across multiple reviewers for enhanced reliability. The quality of selected studies was assessed using established tools such as the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Using the four-stage (identification, screening, eligibility and inclusion) process in the PRISMA statement the initial screening was performed as suggested by [9]. This evaluation encompassed considerations of methodological rigor, sample size, data collection methods, and statistical analyses to gauge the reliability of the included studies.

4 Results

4.1 Results on search strategies

From the PubMed and Google Scholar databases, a sum of 3160 publications was recognized. Of this total, 7.78% (n = 230) originated from PubMed, while 92.72% (n = 2930) were sourced from Google Scholar. During the identification process, 91.93% (n = 2905) of publications were deemed ineligible and consequently excluded. This left only 8.07% (n = 255) of publications to undergo screening. Subsequent screening excluded 89 publications, resulting in the analysis including only the remaining publications (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

PRISMA flow chart for inclusions and exclusions of publications in the study

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5 Discussion

The study thoroughly examined the interconnected obstacles stemming from COVID-19 and climate change in Sub-Saharan Africa's agriculture and food security. It revealed how COVID-19 disruptions worsened preexisting vulnerabilities heightened by climate change, especially impacting small-scale farmers. The effectiveness of current adaptation methods, such as diversifying crops and community-led projects, was evaluated. Moreover, successful advancements like digital agricultural outreach and climate-resilient techniques were highlighted [39]. The paper devised evidence-backed policy suggestions to aid stakeholders in enacting enduring policies and fortifying resilience. In essence, it delivered a holistic grasp of the challenges and presented practical approaches to tackle them effectively.

5.1 Effects of COVID-19 restrictions and climate change on agricultural supply chains and food production in Sub-Saharan Africa

COVID-19 restrictions disrupted agricultural supply chains in Sub-Saharan Africa, causing widespread challenges in food production. Lockdowns, transport limitations, and market closures led to labor shortages, delayed inputs, and hindered distribution (Table 2). These disruptions significantly impacted farmers' livelihoods and threatened regional food security, exacerbating existing vulnerabilities in the agriculture sector. Ways in which climate change exacerbate the challenges faced by the agricultural sector in the region [2]. A study in the Senegal reveals that COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted the agricultural sector, with concerns ranging from access to inputs, planting ability, yield reduction, feeding livestock, selling produce, hiring labor, and ensuring regular food availability, to disruptions in markets, increased food prices, and market closures [14, 53]. The primary impacts include income reduction, production losses due to challenges in conventional marketing, and difficulties in managing farming systems due to limited access to inputs and labor [54]. A Sub-Saharan Africa study assessing COVID-19 impact on beans agriculture and supply chains revealed severe consequences in Southern Africa and comparatively milder effects in Central Africa [55]. Challenges in production and distribution adversely affected food consumption frequency and patterns in households across the continent [55]. Additionally, a study conducted in African countries has indicated that the agricultural sector in Senegal and Burkina Faso is impacted by COVID-19, resulting in fluctuations in cereal production. Senegal's production ranges from 1.47 to 2.47 million tons, and Burkina Faso's from 4.51 to 7.52 million tons [53]. Economic values range from $771 million to $1292 million in Senegal and $1251 million to $2098 million in Burkina Faso. These variations may impact total agricultural GDP by − 7% to + 6% in Senegal and − 8% to + 9% in Burkina Faso [53]. The effects of Covid 19—in Agriculture is expected. The effects witnessed in agriculture due to COVID-19 are expected to exacerbate when combined with the ongoing challenges posed by climate change.

Table 2 The frequencies of publication that reported the components of the search questions on the combined impact of COVID-19 and climate change on the agricultural sector and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa
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Climate change significantly impacts the agriculture sector in Sub-Saharan Africa, manifesting through erratic weather patterns, prolonged droughts, and increased occurrences of extreme weather events [56]. These changes disrupt agricultural activities, leading to reduced crop yields, loss of livestock, and diminished food security [57]. For instance, a study by [58] has revealed that, by 2050 and 2080, climate change is expected to reduce maize yields in SSA, particularly under medium/high input levels in Western/Southern Africa, potentially affecting food security, yet international trade could mitigate some impacts.

Smallholder farmers, who constitute a significant portion of the agricultural workforce, are particularly vulnerable due to their dependence on rain-fed agriculture and limited access to resources. In Tanzania, as well as in other countries like Senegal, Malawi, and Kenya, smallholder farmers have been severely affected by climate change. This has led to various efforts, such as focusing on extension services, being undertaken by governments to enhance farmers' adaptation capacity to the impacts of climate change [59]. Climate change exacerbates existing challenges such as soil degradation and water scarcity, threatening the livelihoods of millions and exacerbating food insecurity in the region. The interconnectedness of climate change and the water, land, and food (WLF) security nexus in SSA is vital. Comprehensive mitigation and adaptation strategies involve transdisciplinary teams and models like Climate, Land, Energy and Water (CLEWS approach). However, CLEWS has limitations at smaller scales, necessitating attention to knowledge-sharing and investment promotion for WLF security [60]. Adaptation strategies are essential to mitigate these impacts and build resilience within the agricultural sector.

The synergistic impact of COVID-19 and climate change on agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa is profound. COVID-19 restrictions disrupted agricultural supply chains, exacerbating challenges in food production. Concurrently, climate change disrupts agricultural activities, reducing crop yields and threatening food security. Smallholder farmers, particularly vulnerable, require adaptation strategies amidst interconnected challenges (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

The figure shows the synergistic impact of COVID-19 and climate in agricultural sector and food security and how the evidence-based recommendation adaptation and innovation improves agricultural productivity. P = Shortage of labor, disruptions in the supply chain, market closures and price fluctuations, challenges in import and export, financial stress on farmers, limited access to inputs, migration from rural to urban areas, increased food loss and waste, difficulties in climate resilience, and responses to policies and regulations. Q = Variations in temperature, scarcity of water and drought, alterations in rainfall patterns, occurrences of extreme weather events, outbreaks of pests and diseases, rising sea levels, shifts in growing zones, loss of biodiversity, including pollinators, challenges in food distribution and access, and economic impacts. R = Utilization of digital technologies, including mobile apps and online platforms for market access; crop diversification as a strategy to address climate change impacts; adoption of water management techniques in response to shifting precipitation patterns; cultivation of climate-resilient crop varieties like drought-resistant or heat-tolerant strains; community-based adaptation through collaborative efforts within localities, facilitating knowledge and resource-sharing; implementation of agroforestry practices to improve soil fertility, conserve water, and bolster resilience to climate change; livestock management strategies; adoption of conservation agriculture practices such as minimal tillage, cover cropping, and agroecological approaches; establishment of early warning systems; and engagement in capacity building and training initiatives

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5.2 The adaptation strategies that have been employed in response to the compounded challenges, and how effective are they in enhancing resilience

Adaptation strategies, devised in response to compounded challenges, encompass initiatives like sustainable agriculture, climate-resilient crops, and community collaboration. Assessing the effectiveness of these measures’ entails evaluating their impact on mitigating challenges, fostering community cohesion, and promoting ecological and food security sustainability, as exemplified in the case of the Communities along River Tana Basin in Kenya [30]. A comprehensive analysis considers their long-term viability, adaptability to dynamic circumstances, and the extent to which they contribute to overall resilience against multifaceted challenges, offering insights into their success and areas for improvement [25, 30]. Adaptation and resilience in agriculture involve village-based interventions targeting climate vulnerabilities. The four modules encompass natural resource management, crop production with drought-resistant varieties and water-saving techniques, livestock and fisheries interventions, and the establishment of village-level institutions, marketing groups, weather-based insurance, and climate literacy through automated weather stations [61].

These strategies are customized to address specific climatic conditions and resource situations within each village, promoting sustainable practices and enhancing resilience [61]. And these interventions yielded improved productivity, income, and livelihoods. Environmental benefits included enhanced soil health, groundwater recharge, and vegetation cover, correlating with measured greenhouse gas emissions and carbon balance assessments [61]. In the aftermath of the combined impacts of COVID-19 and climate change, a study conducted by Ringsmuth et al. (2022) suggests the importance of mapping direct, cross-border, and cross-sectoral effects of potential climate extremes. It advises adopting adaptive risk management strategies that accommodate diverse decision-making and uncertainty, and emphasizes a comprehensive resilience approach that prioritizes human wellbeing, encompassing societal and ecological resilience.

5.3 Successful innovations or best practices that showcase resilience in the face of these challenges

Successful innovations in agriculture include digital platforms for remote management, climate-resilient crop varieties, agroecological practices, community-based adaptation, income diversification, weather-index insurance, precision agriculture, efficient water management, cold storage, and community seed banks. These practices showcase resilience in addressing challenges posed by both COVID-19 and climate change, ensuring sustainable food security. For instance, Precision agriculture and efficient water management are crucial strategies to overcome the challenges posed by climate change and COVID-19 in the agricultural sector. Precision agriculture, leveraging technology and data, optimizes resource use and enhances productivity. Efficient water management ensures sustainable use of water resources, mitigating the impact of changing climate patterns and promoting agricultural resilience. A study by [63] reveled that, digital technology benefits Sub-Saharan Africa's farmers with market access and knowledge, but barriers like tool adaptability and digital literacy hinder progress, requiring inclusive investment and tailored training for full advantage.

Furthermore, concerns pertaining to establishing sustainable food systems in agriculture, reducing environmental pollution, increasing yields, ensuring fair food distribution, and alleviating malnutrition to enhance food security were addressed. While digital agriculture plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change and ensuring food security, achieving its benefits sustainably and equitably demands concerted efforts from policymakers, researchers, and farmers. This highlights the necessity for collaborative action across sectors [63, 64]. Smart Agriculture employs technology throughout the production chain to boost crop yield and quality, ensuring food security and income growth. Notably, smart irrigation utilizes sensors, controllers, and mathematical models, while UAVs and robots execute tasks in real-time, enabled by IoT (Internet of Things), DL (Deep Learning), AI (Artificial Intelligence), ML (Machine Learning), and wireless communication. This highlights the necessity of a 5G mobile network for rapid data transfer and connectivity. This innovation emphasizes the importance of a 5G mobile network for high-speed data transfer and connectivity (Balasundram et al., 2023; Said Mohamed et al., 2021).

5.4 Evidence-based policy recommendations can be formulated to strengthen resilience and adaptation in the agricultural sector of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Crafting evidence-based policy recommendations is vital for enhancing resilience and adaptation in Sub-Saharan Africa's agricultural sector amidst climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic. Informed strategies can strengthen the sector against multifaceted challenges, ensuring sustainable practices and mitigating the impact of evolving environmental and health crises. Formal bylaws proved more effective in this study, demonstrating strength in setting clear boundaries, user rule-making procedures, resource monitoring, sanctions, conflict resolution, and coordinated activities compared to informal bylaws [66]. Operating as an institution yielded collective market strategy benefits (26%), but individual farmers prioritized faster gains and rule autonomy (12%). Market access (35%) overshadowed environmental sustainability. Despite shared goals for intensified potato crop production, combined formal and informal bylaws lacked the strength for Sustainable Crop Intensification (SCI) [66]. Strengthening bylaws on soil and water conservation, quality seed potatoes, and environmental sustainability is essential for supporting Sustainable Crop Intensification (SCI) and enabling broader markets and sustainable livelihoods [39].

Leveraging digital technology holds significant importance in agricultural sectors, even amidst challenges, especially in urban areas. This will help to measures against climate risks, improve disaster readiness, and facilitate efficient planning and management of agricultural practices. The integration of agriculture into urban settings through digital urban farming becomes pivotal for enduring food security and generating attractive clean-tech employment opportunities, particularly for numerous new immigrants [39]. This approach contributes to bolstering the resilience and sustainable development of African cities. A study led by [48] underscores the significance of digital technology in tackling challenges posed by COVID-19 and climate change (Fig. 3). It particularly emphasizes enhancing economic resilience by improving industrial structure, total employment, and employment restructuring. Notably, countries such as Armenia, Israel, Latvia, and Estonia witnessed growth in their digital industries during the pandemic. This suggests the need to formulate strategies to bridge the "digital divide" along the "Belt and Road," highlighting the post-COVID-19 era's potential for digital economy-driven industrial upgrading, employment, and trade [48].

Fig. 3
figure 3

COVID-19 pandemic promoted the use of Digital technologies along the agriculture production chain

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6 Conclusion and recommendation

In conclusion, the review paper underscores the intricate challenges facing the region, revealing the significant impact of COVID-19 and climate change on agricultural practices and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. It emphasizes the vulnerability of the region's agricultural sector to synergistic challenges, thereby amplifying risks to food security and highlighting the imperative for a holistic approach to resilience and adaptation strategies. The study unveils the compounded impact of COVID-19 and climate change on Sub-Saharan Africa's agricultural sector, posing severe threats to food security. Addressing these interconnected challenges requires the implementation of comprehensive resilience strategies to ensure sustainable adaptation. Policy interventions must integrate climate-resilient agricultural practices and pandemic-responsive strategies. This involves promoting the adoption of digital technologies in agriculture to enhance monitoring, early warning systems, and efficient resource management. Additionally, there is a need for capacity building by investing in farmers, extension services, and local communities to enhance adaptive capacities and promote sustainable practices. Community engagement plays a crucial role, necessitating the promotion of participatory approaches in resilience-building efforts to ensure inclusivity and localized solutions.

Furthermore, policymakers should adopt integrated resilience strategies that account for both pandemics and climatic variations. This includes developing adaptable agricultural practices and strengthening supply chain resilience. International collaboration is vital, involving the provision of financial and technological support, promotion of knowledge exchange, and collaborative research efforts. Additionally, there should be policy alignment to align national policies with global initiatives addressing climate change and pandemics, ensuring a coherent and coordinated response at both regional and national levels. Promoting and supporting research through increased funding is essential, guiding evidence-based policy formulation. This comprehensive review calls for urgent and concerted efforts at various levels to build resilience and facilitate adaptation in the agricultural sector, ultimately safeguarding food security in Sub-Saharan Africa.

7 Limitations of the findings

Limitations of the systematic review paper include data scarcity, methodological variability, and quality variations among studies. Publication bias and heterogeneity of contexts within Sub-Saharan Africa may skew results. Temporal constraints and interpretation bias pose challenges, and the generalizability to other regions is uncertain. Longitudinal studies are lacking, hindering trend assessment. Challenges in data synthesis may obscure overarching patterns. These limitations collectively affect the comprehensiveness, reliability, and applicability of the findings, highlighting the need for cautious interpretation and further research.