1 Introduction

Increasing the competitiveness of education in the globalizing world has become one of the primary tasks of societies [1]. With technological developments, educational needs have changed and updated within this framework [2]. Especially in recent years, revolutionary advances in education have brought social network projects to the fore [3]. The eTwinning project, one of the social networking projects, is one of the steps taken to increase the quality of education [4].

eTwinning, one of Europe’s largest online collaboration platforms [5], is the most successful network connecting schools across Europe [6]. The eTwinning platform was established for schools in Europe accepted as major disciplines [5]; it is a safe and free education network based on volunteer participation [7]. It has been included in Erasmus+, the European Union Education, Training, Youth and Sports Program, since 2014 [8, 9]. It is run by the European Schoolnet and Ministries of Education [8, 9].

Regarding April 20, 2022 data, there are 1,052,617 teachers, 232,988 schools, and 138,601 registered projects on the eTwinning platform, in Fig. 1 [8, 9].

Fig. 1
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The number of teachers, schools, and projects registered on the eTwinning platform according to the April 20, 2022 data

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eTwinning project started as an e-learning project in Europe in 2005 [10]. One of the systems that emerged with technology integration into education is the STEM model of interdisciplinary education [11]. In the STEM education model, students gain a producer and researcher identity by doing and living, and gaining experiences [12]. MoNE started STEM studies in 2019 [4]. STEM literature includes studies addressing students from different school types [12,13,14]. They were included in eTwinning by creating an eTwinning project “from STEM club to STEM school,” integrating STEM into education [4].

eTwinning platform provides a basis for project-based learning. It develops cooperation, communication, increased motivation, respect for different cultures, problem-solving, and analytical thinking among stakeholders [15, 16]. eTwinning platform consists of three parts;

  1. 1.

    eTwinning Home Page: In this section, eTwinning teachers can see the objectives of the platform, and ongoing or finished projects, and meet their needs with online and offline training, in Fig. 2 [17].

  2. 2.

    eTwinning Live: This section is accessible to eTwinning members [18]. Teachers who are members of eTwinning participate in the activities carried out by eTwinners in this section, create their activities, carry out their projects with the participation of registered teachers, and contribute to their professional development, in Fig. 3 [8].

  3. 3.

    eTwinning Twinspace: It is the protected area of the eTwinning platform [8, 18]. Stakeholders running projects (managers, project partners, students) share their information, documents, reports, etc., securely in this part, in Fig. 4 [4].

Fig. 2
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eTwinning home page

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Fig. 3
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eTwinning live

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Fig. 4
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eTwinning twinspace

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eTwinning platform also allows teachers to improve their professional development by participating in online training with their colleagues [19]. There are 97 courses on the eTwinning platform, such as development, technology use, coding, and eTwinning beginner [9]. The broad coverage of the platform supports lifelong learning [20].

1.1 Online cooperative learning

Although the eTwinning platform, which is a community created for schools in Europe, has many advantages, its biggest impact is that it provides an online learning environment, enabling stakeholders from different schools to come together and enabling collaborative, innovative and project-based studies to be carried out [21]. It is a platform where stakeholders can increase their communication, entrepreneurship and creativity through e-learning through eTwinning projects. Collaborative learning networks, which are always open to growth and innovation, have increased intercultural interaction and provided the opportunity to create a sense of love, respect, togetherness and trust among the users of the platform [22]. Teachers’ ability to use learning networks regularly and actively contributes to their professional development in the process, indicating the selection of appropriate methods and techniques in lessons and the more efficient use of technology in the education process [23]. It enables teachers and students who come together for common goals to work together with people from different cultures [24]. Sarıkoç and Ersoy [25] supported students’ skills such as cooperation, self-confidence, environmental awareness, entrepreneurship and communication with concrete examples in their Spam eTwinning Project Example study.

1.2 eTwinning in education

The development of social networks at the international level and their change and development with other schools, and the fact that teachers bring these changes to the classroom level increases the quality of educational content [26]. The fact that the teachers involved in the project used a project-based teaching strategy in their education programs made it easier for them to gain interdisciplinary learning experience [27]. Increasing language practice through the use of foreign languages, especially through mutual interaction [28], has become possible in online environments in eTwinning projects. In addition, eTwinning projects can also be implemented by teachers. It also contributes to the development of pedagogical skills such as having twenty-first century skills, collaboration, use of materials in education, cultural awareness, and use of technological products [29]. In his compilation study, Döger [30] concluded that eTwinning activities are a turning point in education. In his study with 20 teachers, Avcı [31] stated that teachers participating in the eTwinning platform provided their professional development by collaborating with their colleagues and used them in the education process.

In this study, the publications on eTwinning published between 2007 and 2023 were reviewed by meta-synthesis to determine and present the general framework to researchers who do/will research eTwinning, trying to reveal general research tendencies on eTwinning. This study aims to give direction to future studies on the subject of eTwining and to guide researchers. From this perspective, this study can be considered as one of the first studies. In this direction, the following questions were addressed within the scope of the study;

What is the distribution of the publications on eTwinning;

1. According to year?

2. According to the method?

3. According to the sample?

4. According to the data collection tool?

5. According to the research subject?

1.3 Limitations

Within the scope of this study, the studies carried out under the relevant subject heading were examined under 5 steps. The results and discussion sections of the identified studies were not included in the study.

2 Method

2.1 Research model

This study’s primary purpose is to systematically review the publications under “eTwinning”. Since the first studies in the field started in 2007, the studies carried out between 2007 and 2023 were investigated. A meta-synthesis was carried out for this purpose. Meta-synthesis is a type of research that aims to interpret and evaluate the qualitative findings of research conducted in a specific field, revealing similar and different aspects and developing new knowledge [32].

Qualitative research such as meta-synthesis can transfer the findings of previous studies into new thematic statements [33]. In addition, new hypotheses and theories can be produced from previous studies by comparing the newly created themes with the others, revealing the relationships, similarities, and differences between them [33]. Meta-synthesis is more than a well-done summary [34]. The steps specified in Fig. 5 should be followed in a meta-synthesis study [32].

Fig. 5
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Steps of meta-synthesis

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2.2 Data collection

The second step of the meta-synthesis study is to determine the appropriate keywords. In this context, “eTwinning”, “eTwinning in education”, and “eTwinning practices” were chosen as the key concepts for this study. Selected key concepts were searched through Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Modestium open access, Research Gate, pubs.rsc.org, ERIC, EBSCO, and Ulakbim, and the publications matching the specified key concepts were saved. Then, the saved publications were reviewed, and irrelevant ones were removed. This elimination process was carried out following the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study.

2.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The third step of the meta-synthesis study is to limit the academic content included in and excluded from the study. Three criteria have been set for the publications included in this study. Two expert academicians were consulted before employing these criteria. The criteria are listed below.

1. The publications have the specified keywords.

2. The publications included in the study are limited to eTwinning topics.

3. The papers published between 2007 and 2023 were used.

2.4 Coding method

The publications included in the study were divided into categories and themes to facilitate their comparison and synthesize the obtained results. In this context, publications were first grouped according to the subject. After identifying the main groups, the publications were coded as 1, 2, …. The studies examined were categorized under the headings of year, method, sample, data collection tool, subjects, learning strategies for the implementation of eTwinning, disciplines and countries. Additionally, studies are grouped as theses and articles. The data obtained are explained in detail in the sublemental material section. The data obtained are interpreted in the form of graphics and tables. The main sub-headings used in the study are listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Main heading and sub-headings of the study
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2.5 Publications included in the meta-synthesis

As a result of the initial literature review, a pool consisting of 130 publications was created. Then, the publications were re-evaluated under the heading of eTwinning-Educational Practices. As a result, 46 publications were kept in the pool. eTwinning, education, distance learning by eTwining…. When words such as were searched in indexes such as Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, ERIC, EBSCO, and Ulakbim, studies that were not articles on eTwinining were excluded from the evaluation.

2.6 Analysis

The obtained data were subjected to descriptive analysis proceeded by determining a basic framework and adhering to this framework, evaluating the data, classifying the findings, and interpreting the classified findings [35]. In this study, the sub-headings of 46 publications were determined in Excel (Table 1). Then, the data were transformed into graphics and interpreted. The subheadings created may be a limitation and a guide for subsequent studies. In this context, various suggestions were made at the end of the study.

2.7 Validity and reliability

The method suggested by Rourke and Anderson [36] was followed to ensure the validity and reliability of the study. Multiple academicians analyze the data in this method, and the consistency coefficient is calculated [36]. Accordingly, the publications in the data pool were analyzed by two academicians using predetermined themes and coding keys. After the analysis was completed, the inter-coder reliability was calculated. In addition, the data were presented in detailed tables and graphs to ensure the study’s internal validity [35]. The data were explained and visualized in detail. Moreover, the reliability formula suggested by Miles and Huberman [37] was used to confirm the reliability of the study. The analysis results of two different researchers were evaluated with the formula “[Reliability = Agreement/(Agreement + Disagreement) × 100]”. The similarity rate between the two analyses is 100%.

2.8 Findings

After reviewing the publications in the literature on the subject of eTwinning, 46 publications were found to be relevant. Of these studies, 4 are theses and 42 are articles. The findings of these 46 publications were evaluated under six headings. These are; "Distribution according to year", "Distribution according to method", "Distribution according to sample", "Distribution according to data collection tool", and "Distribution according to the subject". In this way, researchers will have general information about which subjects and methods have been used and which samples have been studied. Researchers who want to work in this field in the future will find answers to questions such as which subjects have not been researched and which samples have not been studied, etc., thanks to this study.

2.9 Distribution of the publications by year

There are 46 studies were published between 2007 and 2023 under the title of eTwinning. The distribution of these publications by year is given in Fig. 6. Accordingly, the publications on eTwinning started in 2007. At least one study was published every year after this date. 51% of the publications were conducted in 2018 and later. The maximum number of works were published in 2021 (12 publications). 5 studies were published in 2023. Publications distribution in the 5 years is given in Fig. 7. According to Fig. 7, 75% of the publications in the field of eTwinning have been made in the last 10 years. In just the two years between 2022 and 2023, 33% of the publications were made. Accordingly, it is anticipated that the increase in publications in the field of eTwining will be even greater in the remaining three-year period.

Fig. 6
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Distribution of publications by year

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Fig. 7
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Publications distribution in the 5-year period

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2.10 Distribution of publications by method

The distribution of the publications on eTwinning according to the method is given in Fig. 8. Accordingly, 67% of the publications were carried out with qualitative methods, and 9% used quantitative research methods. The mixed method was used in 13% of the studies. The method was not specified in 5 publications in which researchers gave theoretical information about eTwinning.

Fig. 8
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Distribution of publications by method

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2.11 Distribution of publications by sample

46 publications under the relevant topic were classified according to their sample groups, and the results are shown in Fig. 9. Regarding the distribution of the publications according to the sample, 42% were carried out with students, and 45% with teachers. Coordinator participation was observed in one publication; student parents took an active role in another. No sample was specified in 4 publications; on the other hand, multiple sample groups were specified in 3.

Fig. 9
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Distribution of publications by sample

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2.12 Distribution of publications by data collection tool

The distribution of the publications according to the data collection tool is given in Fig. 10. Accordingly, 17 different data collection tools were used in the publications. More than one data collection tool was used in one of them. The most common data collection tool is the interview form (f = 28), followed by the survey (f = 13) and observation form (f = 8.) In 4 publications, the data tool was not specified.

Fig. 10
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Distribution of publications by data collection tool

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2.13 Distribution of publications by subject

The distribution of the publications on eTwinning according to the subject is given in Fig. 11. The publications on eTwinning primarily focused on teacher opinions and language teaching. 41% of the studies focused on teachers’ opinions, followed by language teaching with 15%. 11% of publications were on ICT, and distance education activities were carried out in 4 of them.

Fig. 11
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Distribution of publications by subject

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2.14 Learning strategies, disciplines, and countries for application of the eTwining

Learning strategies, disciplines, and countries for the application of the eTwining are given in Table 2. Accordingly, in learning strategies, most studies have been conducted on Organizing Strategies and Executive Cognition Strategies (Monitoring Comprehension), especially in Turkey and Europe. In general, the emphasis is on the Education and Training (General) discipline.

Table 2 Learning strategies, disciplines, and country for application of the eTwining
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3 Discussion

Regarding the distribution of the publications by year, the highest number of studies were carried out in 2023. eTwining is also a newer education platform. The literature review showed that teachers were unaware of the eTwinning project, and those who were aware did not have sufficient knowledge to actively carry out the process (Bulus Kirikkaya & Yildirim, 2019). From this point of view, the increase in publications in recent years may have resulted from promoting the eTwinning project more. In addition, the number of teachers registered in the eTwinning portal increased in 2021, resulting in more teachers actively participating in the process, which may explain the higher number of studies in 2021. From the perspective of researchers, it can be seen that the first studies on the relevant topic started in 2007. However, 2021, the year in which research is most frequently conducted, is the same as the year in which teachers registered in the eTwining system. This can be interpreted as the eTwining system being more popular for both teacher users and researchers.

The review of the distribution of the research methods showed that the qualitative research method was preferred the most. Qualitative research requires a low number of participants and allows an in-depth presentation of the experiences, thanks to working with fewer people [38]. Qualitative research is a form of research that allows examining a subject from different perspectives and in a versatile way. The main reason why qualitative research is preferred in eTwining studies may be that it is more possible to examine the content of the relevant situations, the before and after of the situation, and the opinions and thoughts of the participants through qualitative methods.

The data obtained in this context reveal new ways of exploring rather than strict rules. Qualitative research provides flexibility to the researcher, leading researchers to prefer this research method more frequently [38].

Regarding the sample distribution of the publications, they were mainly conducted with teachers and students. According to Thomas [39], the learner discovers the knowledge in the learning process. Similarly, students play an active role in eTwinning projects while teachers guide the process [40]. The samples mainly consisted of teachers and students, which supports this view.

According to the distributions of the publications by data collection tool, interviews were used the most, which is thought to be associated with the frequent use of qualitative research methods. Interviews give freedom to reveal emotions and thoughts, which is one of the objectives of qualitative methods [41].

Another result of the study is that the publications mainly focused on teacher opinions and language education. The current situation was tried to be revealed in a broad perspective, in all details, by taking the teachers’ opinions who carry out eTwinning projects and guiding the process. Øverland [42] stated that the language learning of teachers and students participating in the eTwinning platform improved by being active. Similarly, Llamas [43] emphasized that eTwinning projects contribute to language teaching through cultural transmission. In general, many studies have been found on Organizational Strategies and Executive Cognition Strategies (Monitoring Understanding) as learning strategies. This is due to the effort to reveal the main lines of eTwining, create its content and schematics, and group its subjects. At the same time, the emphasis was on identifying, evaluating, providing direction and finding solutions to problems to understand both the impact of the pandemic and the success and impact of eTwnining.

4 Conclusion

This research aims to reveal the current trend by examining the publications on eTwinning between 2007 and 2023 by meta-synthesis. 46 studies were reviewed and analyzed. In this context, the year, method, sample group, data collection tool, and subjects of the publications were analyzed. As a result, it was found that the qualitative research method was preferred, and the highest number of publications on eTwinning was realized in 2021. In addition, the participants were primarily teachers and students, and the interview was the most preferred data collection tool in publications. The publications focused on teacher opinions and language education. eTwning communities are an opportunity for researchers, teachers, and students in terms of learning a language, create a common culture, and providing personal development and a feeling of belonging to the community. This situation may have made different groups tend to join eTwining groups and work in this field.

Based on these results, the following suggestions can be submitted; As the existing publications mainly focused on teachers and students, the study group may be extended by including coordinators, ELT experts, parents, and other groups. The publications were primarily qualitative; different findings can be revealed by employing quantitative and mixed methods in future research. Other meta-synthesis studies can be carried out by using different databases. eTwining is also a newer education platform. The number of users will increase as teachers and students begin to realize the benefits of eTwining. At the same time, as the number of users increases, changes in the content will occur. Thus, researchers’ interest in eTwining will also increase. Contribution to the educational style developed with each content will be a new research topic for researchers.