Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Perceptions of the sport leadership labyrinth through the career pathways of intercollegiate women administrators

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
SN Social Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Despite a tremendous increase in sport participation opportunities for women and girls over the previous decades, women are highly underrepresented in leadership roles throughout the sport industry. This underrepresentation has been attributed to a variety of social and cultural barriers faced by women in this male prominent industry, and while these barriers to leadership advancement are well established in literature, individual perceptions of the barriers and obstacles are not well known. Given that men hold the majority of NCAA sport leadership roles, it is critical to evaluate employee perceptions of the barriers to sport leadership advancement for women as networking opportunities, hiring practices, and the effectiveness of organizational diversity initiatives may hang in the balance. As a result, and to fill this gap in the previous literature, the Career Pathways Survey was utilized to gauge employee perceptions of the barriers. Overall, findings revealed that men administrators were less likely to acknowledge the existence of leadership barriers for women employees. Based on these findings, we argue that symbolic organizational structures/policies are falling short of advancing Equal Opportunity Law towards social and cultural change. Implications are discussed along with suggestions on how to improve upon the arguably unsuccessful symbolic structures/policies that sport organizations have implemented to improve their levels of diversity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

References

  • Acker J (2006) Inequality regimes: gender, class, and race in organizations. Gend Soc 20(4):441–464

    Google Scholar 

  • Acker J (2012) Gendered organizations and intersectionality: problems and possibilities. Equal Divers Incl 31:11

    Google Scholar 

  • Acosta RV, Carpenter LJ (2014) Women in intercollegiate sport: a longitudinal, national study, thirty seven-year update, 1977–2014. Unpublished manuscript. www.acostacarpenter.org

  • Adriaanse JA, Claringbould I (2016) Gender equality in sport leadership: from the Brighton Declaration to the Sydney Scoreboard. Int Rev Sociol Sport 51(5):547–566

    Google Scholar 

  • Adriaanse JA, Schofield T (2013) Analysing gender dynamics in sport governance: a new regimes-based approach. Sport Manag Rev 16(4):498–513

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahn NY, Cunningham GB (2017) Cultural values and gender equity on national Olympic committee boards. Int J Exer Sci 10(6):857–874

    Google Scholar 

  • Albanesi S, Olivetti C, Prados MJ (2015) Gender and dynamic agency: theory and evidence on the compensation of top executives. In: Polachek SW, Tatsiramos K, Zimmerman KF (eds) Gender in the labor market. Emerald Group Publishing, Bingley, pp 1–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Alimo-Metcalf B (1995) An investigation of female and male constructs of leadership and empowerment. Women Manag Rev 10(2):3–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Beatty JE (2007) Women and invisible social identities: women as the other in organizations. In: Bilimoria D, Piderit SK (eds) Handbook on women in business and management. Edward Elgar Publishing, Northampton, pp 34–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Belanger K (2016) Invisible seasons: title IX and the fight for equity in college sports. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell MC (2008) Strength in muscle and beauty in integrity: building a body for her. J Philos Sport 35:43–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Betz NE (2006) Basic issues and concepts in the career development and counseling of women. In: Walsh WB, Heppner MJ (eds) Handbook of career counseling for women, 2nd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Manwah, pp 45–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Bono JE, Braddy PW, Liu Y, Gilbert EK, Fleenor JW, Quast LN, Center BA (2016) Dropped on the way to the top: gender and managerial derailment. Person Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burton LJ (2015) Underrepresentation of women in sport leadership: a review of research. Sport Manag Rev 18(2):155–165

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton LJ, Leberman S (eds) (2017) Women in sport leadership: research and practice for change. Routledge, Oxon, UK

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton LJ, Barr CA, Fink JS, Bruening JE (2009) “Think athletic director, think masculine?”: examination of gender typing of managerial subroles within athletic administration position. Sex Roles 61:416–426

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton LJ, Grappendorf H, Henderson A (2011) Perceptions of gender in athletic administration: Utilizing role congruity to examine (potential) prejudice against women. JSport Manag 25(1):36–45

  • Buzuvis EE (2015) Barriers to leadership in women’s college athletics. In: Comeaux E (ed) Introduction to collegiate athletics. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  • Clopton AW (2015) Where does it begin? Exploring gender differences in student-athletes’ perceptions of entering the coaching profession. Women Sport Phys Act 23:34–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Clopton AW, Sagas M (2009) Shattering the glass ceiling? Examining the impact of perceived gender discrimination on promotional opportunities of male and female coaches in women’s athletics. Int J Sport Manag 10:1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Coakley JJ (2008) Sports in society: issues and controversies. McGraw-Hill, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham GB (2008) Creating and sustaining gender diversity in sport organizations. Sex Roles 58:136–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham GB (2010) Understanding the under-representation of African American coaches: a multilevel perspective. Sport Manag Rev 13(4):395–406

  • Cunningham G (2012) A multilevel model for understanding the experiences of LGBT sport participants. J Study Sports Athl Educ 6(1):5–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham GB (2015) Diversity and inclusion in sport organizations, 3rd edn. Holcomb-Hathaway, Scottsdale

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham GB, Sagas M (2008) Gender and sex diversity in sport organizations: introduction to a special issue. Sex Roles 58(1–2):3–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham GB, Miner K, McDonald J (2013) Being different and suffering the consequences: the influence of head coach–player racial dissimilarity on experienced incivility. Int Rev Sociol Sport 48(6):689–705

    Google Scholar 

  • Darvin L (2020) Voluntary occupational turnover and the experiences of former intercollegiate women assistant coaches. J Vocat Behav 116:103349

    Google Scholar 

  • Darvin L, Demara EH (2021) The emergence, experiences, and empowerment of women administrators, coaches, and athletes. Research anthology on challenges for women in leadership roles. IGI Global, Pennsylvania, pp 195–208

    Google Scholar 

  • Darvin L, Sagas M (2017) An examination of homologous reproduction in the representation of assistant coaches of women’s teams: a 10-year update. Gend Issues 34(2):171–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Darvin L, Pegoraro A, Berri D (2018) Are men better leaders? An investigation of head coaches’ gender and individual players’ performance in amateur and professional women’s basketball. Sex Roles 78:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Darvin L, Taylor E, Wells J (2019) Get in the game through a sponsor: initial career ambitions of former women assistant coaches. J Issues Intercoll Athl 12:590–613

    Google Scholar 

  • DeHass D (2008) 2005-06 NCAA [R] Gender-equity report. National Collegiate Athletic Association

  • Eagly AH (1987) Sex differences in social behavior: a social-role interpretation. Erlbaum, Hillsdale

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly AH (2007) Female leadership advantage and disadvantage: resolving the contradictions. Psychol Women Quart 31(1):1–12

  • Eagly AH, Carli LL (2003) The female leadership advantage: an evaluation of the evidence. Leadersh Q 14(6):807–834

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly AH, Carli LL (2007) Women and the labyrinth of leadership. Harv Bus Rev 85(9):62–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly AH, Karau SJ (2002) Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychol Rev 109(3):573–598

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly AH, Wood W (2011) Feminism and the evolution of sex differences and similarities. Sex Roles 64(9–10):758–767

    Google Scholar 

  • Eccles JS (1994) Understanding women’s educational and occupational choices. Psychol Women Q 18:585–609

    Google Scholar 

  • Edelman LB (2016) Working law: courts, corporations, and symbolic civil rights. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL

    Google Scholar 

  • Fink JS (2008) Gender and sex diversity in sport organizations: concluding comments. Sex Roles 58:146–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Fink JS (2015) Female athletes, women’s sport, and the sport media commercial complex: have we really “come a long way, baby”? Sport Manag Rev 18(3):331–342

    Google Scholar 

  • Frear KA, Paustian-Underdahl SC, Heggestad ED, Walker LS (2018) Gender and career success: a typology and analysis of dual paradigms. J Organ Behav 40:400–416

    Google Scholar 

  • Grappendorf H, Burton LJ (2017) The impact of bias in sport leadership. In: Burton LJ, Leberman S (eds) Women in sport leadership: research and practice for change. Routledge, Oxon, UK, pp 47–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Grappendorf H, Lough N, Griffin J (2004) Profiles and career patterns of female NCAA division I athletic directors. Int J Sport Manag 5(3):243–261

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenhill J, Auld C, Cuskelly G, Hooper S (2009) The impact of organisational factors on career pathways for female coaches. Sport Manag Rev 12(4):229–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Hancock MG, Hums MA (2015) Career goals and expectations of female senior level administrators in NCAA Division I athletic departments. Glob Sport Manag J 3(1):21–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Hancock MG, Hums MA (2016) “A leaky pipeline?” Perceptions of barriers and supports of female senior-level administrators in NCAA Division I athletic departments. Sport Manag Rev 19:198–210

    Google Scholar 

  • Hancock MG, Darvin L, Walker N (2018) Beyond the glass ceiling. Sport management students’ perceptions of the glass ceiling. Sport Manag Educ J 12(2):100

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman JL (2011) Inside the huddle: gender stereotyping work among senior-level women athletic administrators. Int J Sport Manag 12:255–274

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoobler JM, Masterson CR, Nkomo SM, Michel EJ (2016) The business case for women leaders: meta-analysis, research critique, and path forward. J Manag. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316628643

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Humberstone B (2009) Sport management, gender and the ‘bigger picture’: challenging changes in Higher Education—A partial auto/ethnographical account. Sport Manag Rev 12(4):255–262

    Google Scholar 

  • Ibarra H, Carter N, Silva C (2010) Why men still get more promotions than women. Harvard business review. https://hbr.org/2010/09/why-men-still-get-more-promotions-than-women

  • Kane MJ, LaVoi N (2018) An examination of intercollegiate athletic directors’ attributions regarding the underrepresentation of female coaches in women’s sports. Women Sport Phys Act J 26(1):3–11

  • Kanter RM (1977) Men and women of the corporation. Basic Books, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kark R, Eagly A (2010) Gender and leadership: negotiating the labyrinth. In: Chrisler JC, McCreary DR (eds) Handbook of gender research in psychology. Springer, New York, pp 443–468

    Google Scholar 

  • King B (2017) Lauren B. Edelman: working law: courts, corporations, and symbolic civil rights. Adm Sci Q 62(4):47–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Lapchick R (2016) Gender report Card: 2016 International Sports Report Card on Women in Leadership Roles. The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport, University of Central Florida, USA. www.tidesport.org/women-sleadershipin-international-sports.html

  • LaVoi NM (2016) A framework to understand experiences of women coaches around the globe: the ecological-intersectional model. Women in sports coaching. Routledge, New York, pp 27–48

    Google Scholar 

  • LaVoi NM, Dutove JK (2012) Barriers and supports for female coaches: an ecological model. Sports Coach Rev 1:17–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorinkova NM, Perry SJ (2019) The importance of group-focused transformational l leadership and felt obligation for helping and group performance. J Organ Behav 40(3):231–247

    Google Scholar 

  • Lumpkin A, Dodd RK, McPherson L (2014) Does a glass ceiling persist in college athletics? J Study Sports Athl Educ 8(1):33–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Madsen RM (2016) “Dads play basketball, moms go shopping!” Social role theory and the preference for male coaches. J Contemp Athl 10(4):277–291

    Google Scholar 

  • Madsen RM, Burton LJ, Clark BS (2017) Gender role expectations and the prevalence of women as assistant coaches. J Study Sports Athl Educ 11(2):125–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason MA, Goulden M (2004) Marriage and baby blues: redefining gender equity in the academy. Ann Amer Acad Polit Soc Sci 596(1):86–103

  • Maume DJ (1999) Occupational segregation and career mobility of white men and women. Soc Forces 77(4):1433–1459

    Google Scholar 

  • Ng ES, Sears GJ (2017) The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalization on the representation of women in management. Hum Resour Manag J 27(1):133–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Nishii LH (2017) A multi-level process model for understanding diversity practice effectiveness (CAHRS ResearchLink No. 5). Cornell University ILR School, Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies, Ithaca

  • Palmer FR, Masters TM (2010) Māori feminism and sport leadership: exploring Māori women’s experiences. Sport Manag Rev 13(4):331–344

    Google Scholar 

  • Paluch RM, Nishii LH, Khattab J, Shemla M (2017) A multi-level process model for understanding diversity practice effectiveness. In: 2017 Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, AOM 2017, vol 2017. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2017.293

  • Parks JB, Russell RL, Wood PH, Roberton MA, Shewokis PA (1995) The paradox of the contented working woman in intercollegiate athletics administration. Res Q Exer Sport 66(1):73–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Sartore ML, Cunningham GB (2007) Explaining the under-representation of women in leadership positions of sport organizations: a symbolic interactionist perspective. Quest 59:244–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Schull VD, Kihl LA (2018) Gendered leadership expectations in sport: constructing differences in coaches. Women Sport Phys Act J 27(1):1–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw S, Frisby W (2006) Can gender equity be more equitable?: promoting an alternative frame for sport management research, education, and practice. J Sport Manag 20:483–509

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw S, Leberman S (2015) Using the kaleidoscope career model to analyze female CEOs’ experiences in sport organizations. Gend Manag 30(6):500–515

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith P, Crittenden N, Caputi P (2012) Measuring women’s beliefs about glass ceilings: development of the career pathways survey. Gend Manag J 27(2):68–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Spoor JR, Hoye R (2013) Perceived support and women’s intentions to stay at a sport organization. Br J Manag 25(3):407–424

    Google Scholar 

  • Stamarski CS, Hing LSS (2015) Gender inequalities in the workplace: the effects of organizational structures, processes, practices, and decision makers’ sexism. Front Psychol 6:1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor EA, Ward RM, Huml MR, Darvin L (2021) Examining intercollegiate athletic department employees’ workplace behaviors using latent profile analysis. Sport Manag Rev. https://doi.org/10.1080/14413523.2021.1899720

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turk K (2016) Equality on trial: gender and rights in the modern American workplace. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  • United States Census Bureau (2017) Historical income tables. https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/income-poverty/historical-income-people.html

  • Walker NA, Bopp T (2011) The underrepresentation of women in the male-dominated sport workplace: perspectives of female coaches. J Workplace Rights 15(1):47–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker NA, Melton EN (2015) The tipping point: the intersection of race, gender, and sexual orientation in intercollegiate sports. J Sport Manag 29(3):257–271

    Google Scholar 

  • Whisenant WA, Pedersen PM, Obenour BL (2002) Success and gender: determining the rate of advancement for intercollegiate athletic directors. Sex Roles 47(9/10):485–491

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson B (2014) Middle-walkers: negotiating middle ground on the shifting terrain of sport, peace and development. In Sport, social development and peace. Emerald Group Publishing Limited

  • Witt M, Wood W (2010) Self-regulation of gender in everyday life. Sex Roles 62:635–646

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sport Management Department, State University of New York (SUNY) at Cortland, Cortland, NY, USA

    Lindsey Darvin

  2. Sport Administration Department, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA

    Meg Hancock

  3. Sport Management Department, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA

    Sarah Williams

Authors
  1. Lindsey Darvin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Meg Hancock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sarah Williams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by LD, MH, and SW. The first draft of the manuscript was written by LD, MH, and SW and all authors commented on the previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lindsey Darvin.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

Ethical approval

This study was approved via the University of Louisville Institutional Review Board.

Informed consent

Participants were required to review the consent form and indicate consent by clicking ‘yes’ on the survey prior to beginning.

Consent for publication

Consent for publication has been achieved via the Institutional Review Board process.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Darvin, L., Hancock, M. & Williams, S. Perceptions of the sport leadership labyrinth through the career pathways of intercollegiate women administrators. SN Soc Sci 1, 281 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-021-00289-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-021-00289-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation