Abstract
Students with emotional or behavioral disorders (EBD) perform academically below their peers. One area of particular challenge is written expression. Using a multiple-probe design across participants, this study evaluated the effects of GO 4 IT . . . NOW! strategy instruction on the writing skills of three students with EBD, ages 11–14. The researchers used GO 4 IT . . . NOW strategy instruction to teach students to write paragraphs in the context of their individualized education programs; in particular, students learned to write goals and objectives related to their self-identified academic and nonacademic needs. Researchers taught 19 GO 4 IT . . . NOW! lessons in a one-on-one format; lessons included explicit strategy instruction, feedback, self-evaluation, and practice with revising paragraphs. Results indicate a functional relation between GO 4 IT . . . NOW! strategy instruction and improved expository and IEP goal paragraphs. Students maintained gains into the following school year. Social validity, limitations, and future directions are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alter, P. (2012). Helping students with emotional and behavioral disorders solve mathematics word problems. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children & Youth, 56(1), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2011.565283.
Baker, S., Gersten, R., & Graham, S. (2003). Teaching expressive writing to students with learning disabilities: Research-based applications and examples. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(2), 109–123. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221940303600204.
Carter, E. W., Lane, K. L., Pierson, M. R., & Glaeser, B. (2006). Self-determination skills and opportunities of transition-age youth with emotional disturbance and learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 72(3), 333–346. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290607200305.
Collins, G., & Wolter, J. A. (2018). Facilitating postsecondary transition and promoting academic success through language/literacy-based self-determination strategies. Language, Speech, & Hearing Services in Schools, 49(2), 176–188. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_LSHSS-17-0061.
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis. Pearson.
Cuenca-Sanchez, Y., Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., & Kidd, J. K. (2012). Teaching students with emotional and behavioral disorders to self-advocate through persuasive writing. Exceptionality, 20(2), 71–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2012.669291.
Daniels, S., McCurdy, M., Whitsitt, L., Skinner, C. H., Schwartz-Micheaux, J., & White, J. (2020). Evaluating the effects of a writing self-efficacy intervention on writing quantity in middle school students. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 36(1), 48–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2019.1618226.
Dignath, C., Buettner, G., & Langfeldt, H. (2008). How can primary school students learn self-regulated learning strategies most effectively? A meta-analysis on self-regulation training programmes. Educational Research Review, 3(2), 101–129.
Dunn, M. E., Shelnut, J., Ryan, J. B., & Katsiyannis, A. (2017). A systematic review of peer-mediated interventions on the academic achievement of students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Education & Treatment of Children, 40(4), 497–524. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2017.0022.
Ennis, R. P., & Jolivette, K. (2014). Using self-regulated strategy development for persuasive writing to increase the writing and self-efficacy skills of students with emotional and behavioral disorders in health class. Behavioral Disorders, 40(1), 20–36. https://doi.org/10.17988/0198-7429-40.1.26.
Fowler, C. H., Konrad, M., Walker, A. R., Test, D. W., & Wood, W. M. (2007). Self-determination interventions’ effects on the academic performance of students with developmental disabilities. Education & Training in Developmental Disabilities, 42(3), 270–285.
Gage, N. A., Wilson, J., & MacSuga-Gage, A. S. (2014). Writing performance of students with emotional and/or behavioral disabilities. Behavioral Disorders, 40(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.17988/0198-7429-40.1.3.
Garwood, J. D. (2018). Literacy interventions for secondary students formally identified with emotional and behavioral disorders: Trends and gaps in the research. Journal of Behavioral Education, 27(1), 23–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-017-9278-3.
Gillespie, A. S., & Graham, S. (2014). A meta-analysis of writing interventions for students with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 80(4), 454–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914527238.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2003). Students with learning disabilities and the process of writing: A meta-analysis of SRSD studies. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (p. 323–344). The Guilford Press.
Graham, S., Harris, K. R., & Mason, L. (2005). Improving the writing performance, knowledge, and self-efficacy of struggling young writers: The effects of self-regulated strategy development. Contemporary educational psychology, 30(2), 207–241.
Graham, S., & Hebert, M. A. (2010). Writing to read: Evidence for how writing can improve reading. A Carnegie Corporation Time to Act Report. Alliance for Excellent Education.
Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1992). Self-regulated strategy development: A part of the writing process. In M. Pressley, K. R. Harris, & J. T. Guthrie (Eds.), Promoting academic competence and literacy in school (p. 277–309). Academic Press.
Harris, K., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process work: Strategies for composition and self-regulation (2nd ed.). Brookline Books.
Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Mason, L. H., & Friedlander, B. (2008). Powerful writing strategies for all students. Brookes Publishing.
Hauth, C., Mastropieri, M., Scruggs, T., & Regan, K. (2013). Can students with emotional and/or behavioral disabilities improve on planning and writing in the content areas of civics and mathematics? Behavioral Disorders, 38(3), 154–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874291303800304.
Horner, R. H., Carr, E. G., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single-subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional Children, 71(2), 165–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290507100203.
Kauffman, J. M., & Landrum, T. (2012). Characteristics of emotional and behavioral disorders of children and youth (10th ed.) Pearson.
Kellogg, R. T., & Whiteford, A. P. (2009). Training advanced writing skills: The case for deliberate practice. Educational Psychology, 44(4), 250–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520903213600.
Kleinert, J. O. R., Harrison, E. M., Fisher, T. L., & Kleinert, H. L. (2010). “I can” and “I did”—Self-advocacy for young students with developmental disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 43(2), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005991004300202.
Konrad, M., Clark, K. A., & Test, D. W. (2017). Effects of GO 4 IT . . . NOW! strategy instruction on expository writing skills for students with disabilities. Career Development & Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 40(1), 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143416680884
Konrad, M., & Test, D. W. (2007). Effects of GO 4 IT . . . NOW! strategy instruction on the written IEP goal articulation and paragraph-writing skills of middle school students with disabilities. Remedial & Special Education, 28(5), 277–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325070280050301.
Konrad, M., & Trela, K. (2007). GO 4 IT . . . NOW! Extending writing strategies to support all students. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(4), 42–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005990703900405.
Konrad, M., Trela, K., & Test, D. W. (2006). Using IEP goals and objectives to teach paragraph writing to high school students with physical and cognitive disabilities. Education & Training in Developmental Disabilities, 41(2), 111–124.
Lane, K. L., Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Weisenbach, J. L., Brindle, M., & Morphy, P. (2008). The effects of self-regulated strategy development on the writing performance of second-grade students with behavioral and writing difficulties. Journal of Special Education, 41(4), 234–253.
Maggin, D. M., Chafouleas, S. M., Goddard, K. M., & Johnson, A. H. (2011). A systematic evaluation of token economies as a classroom management tool for students with challenging behavior. Journal of School Psychology, 49(5), 529–554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2011.05.001.
Malian, I., & Nevin, A. (2002). A review of self-determination literature: Implications for practitioners. Remedial and Special Education, 23(2), 68–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193250202300202.
Martin, J. E., Mithaug, D. E., Cox, P., Peterson, L. Y., Van Dycke, J. L., & Cash, M. E. (2003). Increasing self-determination: Teaching students to plan, work, evaluate, and adjust. Exceptional Children, 69(4), 431–446. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290306900403.
Mason, L. H., Kubina, R. M., & Hoover, T. (2013). Effects of quick writing instruction for high school students with emotional disturbances. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 21(3), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426611410429.
Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2014). Intensive instruction to improve writing for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 40(1), 78–83. https://doi.org/10.17988/0198-7429-40.1.78.
Mooney, P., Ryan, J. B., Uhing, B. M., Reid, R., & Epstein, M. H. (2005). A review of self-management interventions targeting academic outcomes for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Behavioral Education, 14(3), 203–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-005-6298-1.
Robacker, C. M., Rivera, C. J., & Warren, S. H. (2016). A token economy made easy through ClassDojo. Intervention in School & Clinic, 52(1), 39–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451216630279.
Sebag, R. (2010). Behavior management through self-advocacy: A strategy for secondary students with learning disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(6), 22–29.
Shogren, K. A., Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Forber-Pratt, A. J., Little, T. J., & Lopez, S. (2015a). Causal agency theory: Reconceptualizing a functional model of self-determination. Education & Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 50, 251–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1042-6.
Shogren, K. A., Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Rifenbark, G. G., & Little, T. D. (2015b). Relationships between self-determination and postschool outcomes for youth with disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 48(4), 256–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466913489733.
Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., & Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to practice. Education & Treatment of Children, 31(3), 351–380.
Stang, K. K., Carter, E. W., Lane, K. L., & Pierson, M. R. (2009). Perspectives of general and special educators on fostering self-determination in elementary and middle schools. Journal of Special Education, 43(2), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466907313452.
Test, D. W., Mason, C., Hughes, C., Konrad, M., Neale, M., & Wood, W. M. (2004). Student involvement in individualized education program meetings. Exceptional Children, 70(4), 391–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290407000401.
Underwood, J. S., & Tregidgo, A. P. (2006). Improving student writing through effective feedback: Best practices and recommendations. Journal of Teaching Writing, 22(2), 73–98.
Wehby, J. H., Lane, K. L., & Falk, K. B. (2003). Academic instruction for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 11(4), 194–197.
Wehmeyer, M. L., & Abery, B. H. (2013). Self determination and choice. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 51(5), 399–411.
Wehmeyer, M. L., & Schwartz, M. (1998). The relationship between self-determination and quality of life for adults with mental retardation. Education & Training in Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities, 33, 3–12.
Wehmeyer, M. L., Shogren, K. A., Toste, J. R., & Mahal, S. (2017). Self-determined learning to motivate struggling learners in reading and writing. Intervention in School & Clinic, 52(5), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451216676800.
Zionts, L. T., Hoza, T. E., & Banks, T. I. (2004). Self-advocacy, self-determination, and adolescent brain research: What are the implications for youth with EBD. Beyond Behavior, 13(3), 9–11.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Research involving Human Participants and/or Animals
Approval was obtained from the Office of Responsible Research Practices of the Ohio State University. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed consent
Written informed consent was obtained from the parents and all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
The authors with the acknowledge the contributions of Corinne Gist, Shelby Bauer, and Natalie Perez who assisted with data collection.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Criss, C.J., Konrad, M., Alber-Morgan, S.R. et al. Effects of GO 4 IT . . . NOW! on Writing Skills of Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Educ. Treat. Child. 44, 71–85 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-021-00037-3
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-021-00037-3