Abstract
A total of 137 Chilean preschool-aged children were evaluated with respect to theory of mind (ToM), and their respective primary caregivers and educators were evaluated with respect to mind-mindedness (MM) in two different times during the school year. The results are consistent with the theory and findings of other studies that suggest that ToM is positively developed over time in children. Furthermore, the results show that the mentalizing capacities of the primary caregiver and educator were significantly and distinctly associated with the development of ToM in the children. The findings contribute, particularly, to the understanding of the importance of preschool education in the overall child development process, as it promotes not only the acquisition of knowledge, but also the development of other abilities, such as the children’s capacity to better understand themselves and others.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and material
The data used in this article is not available due to funding policies.
References
Adrián, J., Clemente, R., & Villanueva, L. (2007). Mothers’ use of cognitive state verbs in picture-book reading and the development of children’s understanding of mind: a longitudinal study. Child Development, 78, 1052–1067. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01052.x
Arzola, M. & Camhi, R. (2013). Educación preescolar: Evidencia y desafíos para Chile [Preschool education: evidence and challenges for Chile]. (Report of the Instituto Libertad y Desarrollo). Retrieved from Educando Juntos website: http://www.educandojuntos.cl/dms/archivo_5823. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Baker, J. (2006). Contributions of teacher-child relationships to positive school adjustment during elementary school. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 211–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.02.002
Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21(1), 37–46.
Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: an essay on autism and theory of mind. MIT Press.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2001). Theory of mind in normal development and autism. Prisme, 34, 174–183. Retrieved from http://www.autism-community.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/TOM-in-TD-and-ASD.pdf. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Belsky, J. (2003). Child care and its impact on young children. In R.E. Tremblay, M. Boivin, & R. de V. Peters (Eds.). Encyclopedia on early childhood development [online]. Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development and Strategic Knowledge Cluster on Early Child Development 1–7. Retrieved from http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/documents/BelskyANGxp3-Child_care.pdf. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Behrman, J. Bravo, D. & Urzúa, S. (2010). Encuesta longitudinal de la primera infancia: aspectos metodológicos y primeros resultados [Longitudinal survey of first infancy: methodological aspects and preliminary results] (Research Report). Retrieved from System of Integral Protection of the Infancy, Chile Crece Contigo website http://www.crececontigo.gob.cl/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/INforme-ELPI-2010.pdf
Bosacki, S. (2013). A longitudinal study of children’s theory of mind, self concept and perceptions of humour in self and others. Social Behaviour and Personality, 41(4), 663–774. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2013.41.4.663
Carlson, St., Mandell, D., & Williams, L. (2004). Executive function and theory of mind: stability and prediction from ages 2–3. Developmental Psychology, 40(6), 1105–1122. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1105
Carvacho, C. (2011). Diseño de un instrumento para evaluar la Mente Mentalizante de cuidadores familiares en interacción con niños(as) preescolares [Design of an instrument for evaluating the Mind-mindedness of the caregivers in interaction with preschool children]. (Master’s thesis, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile). Retrieved from https://dspace.conicyt.cl/bitstream/handle/10533/89211/CARVACHO_CLAUDIA_1991M.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Carvacho, C., Farkas, CH., Santelices, M.P., & Himmel, E. (2013). Diseño y estudio piloto de un instrumento para evaluar la Mente Mentalizante del adulto en interacción con niños(as) preescolares [Design and pilot study of an instrument to assess Mind Mindedness of the adult in interaction with preschool children]. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Dunn, J., Brown, C., Slomkowski, C., Tesla, C., & Youngblade, L. (1991). Young children’s understanding of other people’s feelings and beliefs: individual differences and their antecedents. Child Development, 62(6), 1352–1366. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1991.tb01610.x
Ensink, K., & Mayes, L. (2010). The development of mentalization in children from a theory of mind perspective. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 30, 301–337. https://doi.org/10.1080/07351690903206504
Ewing, A. R., & Taylor, A. R. (2009). The role of child gender and ethnicity in teacher–child relationship quality and children’s behavioral adjustment in preschool. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24, 92–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2008.09.002
Farkas, C. H., Santelices, M.P., & Dacaret, Ch. (2015). Estudio del impacto de los padres y personal educativo en el apego, teoría de la mente y bienestar socio emocional de niños de 3 a 5 años [Proyecto de investigación]. Fondecyt 1100721, Santiago, Chile.
Flavell, J., Everett, B., Croft, K., & Flavell, E. (1981). Young children’s knowledge about visual perception: further evidence for the Level 1–Level 2 distinction. Developmental Psychology, 17(1), 99–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.17.1.99
Fonagy, P. (1991). Thinking about thinking: some clinical and theoretical considerations in the treatment of a borderline patient. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 72, 1–18.
Fonagy, P. (2001). Attachment theory and psychoanalysis. Other Press.
Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (1998). Mentalization and the changing aims of child psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic dialogues. The International Journal of Relational Perspectives, 8(1), 87–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/10481889809539235
Gallagher, K. C., & Mayer, K. (2008). Enhancing development and learning through teacher–child relationships. YC Young Children, 63(6), 80–87. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezp.lib.rochester.edu/stable/42730365?pq-origsite=summon&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Gergely, G., Nadasdy, Z., Csibra, G., & Biro, S. (1995). Taking the intentional stance at 12 months of age. Cognition, 56, 2, 165–193. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7554793Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Gómez, E., Muñoz, M., & Haz, A. (2007). Familias multiproblemáticas y en riesgo social: características e intervención [Families with multiple problems and at social risk: characteristics and interventions]. Psykhe, 16(2), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-22282007000200004
Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. (1988). Children’s understanding of representational change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance–reality distinction. Child Development, 59(1), 26–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1988.tb03192.x
Heckman, J. (2008). Schools, skills, and synapses. Economic Inquiry, Western Economic Association International, 46, 3, 289–-324. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w14064. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Johnson, M., Dziurawiec, S., Ellis, H., & Morton, J. (1991). Newborns’ preferential tracking of face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline. Cognition, 40(1–2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(91)90045-6
Kirk, R., & Griffith, D. (2007). An examination of intensive family preservation services. National Family Preservation Network. Retrieved from http://www.policyforresults.org/child-welfare/increase-exits-from-foster-care-to-permanence-through-reunification/strategies/expand-intensive-family-preservation. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33(1), 159–174. https://doi.org/10.2307/2529310
Leslie, A. (1994). Pretending and believing: issues in the theory of ToM. Cognition, 50(1–3), 211–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(94)90029-9
Lundy, B. (2013). Paternal and maternal mind-mindedness and preschooler’s theory of mind: the mediating role of interactional attachment. Social Development, 22(1), 58–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12009
Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Russell, J. & Clark-Carter, D. (1998). Security of attachment as a predictor of symbolic and mentalizing abilities: a longitudinal study. Social Development,7,1. Retrieved November 19, 2021, from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Charles_Fernyhough/publication/227639278_Security_of_Attachment_as_a_Predictor_of_Symbolic_and_Mentalising_Abilities_A_Longitudinal_Study/links/00b7d52d99d6a3689b000000.pdf
Meins, E., Fernyhough, Ch., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M. (2001). Rethinking maternal sensitivity: mothers’ comments on infants’ mental processes predict security of attachment at 12 months. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 637–648. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00759Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Wainwright, R., Clark-Carter, D., Das Gupta, M., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M. (2003). Pathways to understanding mind: construct validity and predictive validity of maternal mind-mindedness. Child Development, 74, 1194–1211. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00601
Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Wainwright, R., Das Gupta, M., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M. (2002). Maternal Mind Mindedness and attachment security as predictor of theory of mind understanding. Child development, 73, 1715–1726. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00501
Meltzoff, A., & Moore, M. (1983). Newborn infants imitate adult facial gestures. Child Development, 54, 702–709. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1983.tb00496.x
Meltzoff, A. & Moore, M. (1983b). The origins of imitation in infancy: paradigm, phenomena and theories. In: Advances in infancy research, ed. L. P. Lipsitt. Ablex, pp. 265–301.
Ministry of Education. (2005). Bases curriculares de la educacion parrvularia. [Curricular bases for preschool education]. Retrieved from http://portales.mineduc.cl/usuarios/convivencia_escolar/doc/201103041242340.Bases_Curriculares_de_Educacion_Parvularia_2001.pdf. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
National Association of Kindergarten (2010). Reporte Final: Resultados Encuesta Nacional de Primera Infancia. [Final Report: Results of the National Survey of Primary Infacy] . Retrieved from http://www.crececontigo.gob.cl/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Informe-Final-Preliminar-Primera-ENCUESTA-NACIONAL-DE-PRIMERA-INFANCIA.pdf. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
O’Brien, M., Weaver, J., Nelson, J., Calkins, S., Leerkes, E., & Marcovitch, S. (2011). Longitudinal associations between children’s understanding of emotions and theory of mind. Cognition and Emotion, 25(6), 1074–1086. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2010.518417
Ontai, L. L., & Thompson, R. A. (2002). Patterns of attachment and maternal discourse effects on children’s emotion understanding from 3 to 5 years of age. Social Development, 11(4), 433–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00209
Pears, K., & Moses, L. (2003). Demographics, parenting, and theory of mind in preschool children. Social Development, 12(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00219
Perner, J., Leekam, S., & Wimmer, H. (1987). Three-year-olds’ difficulty with false belief: the case for a conceptual deficit. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(2), 125–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1987.tb01048.x
Pianta, R. C. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers (1st ed.). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10314-000
Pianta, R. & Stuhlman, M. (2004). Teacher-child relationships and children’s success in the first years of school. School Psychology Review, 33, 444–458. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezp.lib.rochester.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA124000614&sid=summon&v=2.1&u=nysl_ro_rochstru&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=96092f1fd5498ad586aab936f2898c43. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and brain sciences, 1(4), 515–526. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00076512.
Premack, D. (1990). The infant’s theory of self-propelled objects. Cognition, 36, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(90)90051-K
Premack, D., & Premack, A. (1995). Intention as psychological causes. In D. Sperber, D. Premack, & A. Premack (Eds.), Causal cognition: a multidisciplinary debate (pp. 185–199). Oxford University Press.
Qu, L., Shen, P., Chee, Y. Y., & Chen, L. (2015). Teachers’ Theory-of-mind coaching and children’s executive function predict the training effect of sociodramatic play on children’s theory of mind. Social Development, 24(4), 716–733. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12116
Razza, R. A., & Blair, C. (2009). Associations among false-belief understanding, executive function, and social competence: a longitudinal analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 332–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.020
Renouf, A., Brendgen, M., Parent, S., Vitaro, F., Zelazo, P. D., Boivin, M… Séguin, J. R. (2010). Relations between theory of mind and indirect and physical aggression in kindergarten: evidence of the moderating role of prosocial behaviors. Social Development, 19, 3, 535https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00552.x
Riquelme, E., Henriquez, C. & Alvarez, B. (2003). Relación entre estilos de apego y teoría de la mente [Relationship between attachment styles and theory of mind]. Psykhe, 12, 1, 73-81. Retrieved from http://www.psykhe.cl/index.php/psykhe/article/view/342. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Salas, V., Barría, C., & Reveco, O. (2012) Informe final: programa de mejoramiento de atención a la infancia (PMI) [Final report: Program for improving the care of infants (PMI)]. Ministry of Education, National Organization of Preschools (JUNJI). Retrieved from http://www.dipres.gob.cl/595/articles-89681_doc_pdf.pdf. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Santelices, M. P., Olhaberry, M., Perez-Salas, C. P., Carvacho, C. (2009). Comparative study of early interactions in mother–child dyads and care centre staff–child within the context of Chilean crèches. Child: Care, Health, and Development, 36, 2, 255–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01032.x
Sharp, C., & Fonagy, P. (2008). The parent’s capacity to treat the child as a psychological agent: constructs, measures and implications for developmental psychopathology. Social Development, 17(3), 737–754. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00457.x
Scholl, B., & Leslie, A. (2001). Minds, modules, and meta-analysis. Child Development, 72, 696–701. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00308
Spelke, E., Phillips, A., & Woodward, A. (1995). Infant’s knowledge of object motion and human action. In D. Sperber, D. Premack, & A. Premack (Eds.), Causal cognition: a multidisciplinary debate (pp. 44–78). Oxford University Press.
Stern, D. N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant: a view from psychoanalysis and developmental psychology. Basic Books.
Taumoepeau, M., & Ruffman, T. (2008). Stepping stones to others’ minds: maternal talk relates to child mental state language and emotion understanding at 15, 24, and 33 months. Child Development, 79, 284–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01126.x
Tirapu-Ustárroz, J., Pérez-Sayes, G., Erekatxo-Bilbao, M., & Pelegrín-Valero, C. (2007) ¿Qué es la teoría de la mente? [What is the theory of the mind?]. Revista de Neurología, 44, 8, 479–489. Retrieved from: http://neurologia.com/pdf/web/4408/x080479.pdf. Accessed 19 Nov 2021
Trevarthen, C. (1979). Communication and cooperation in early infancy: a description of primary intersubjectivity. In M. M. Bullowa (Ed.), Before speech: the beginning of interpersonal communication (pp. 321–347). Cambridge University Press.
Wellman, H., & Woolley, J. (1990). From simple desires to ordinary beliefs: the early development of everyday psychology. Cognition, 35, 245–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(90)90024-E
Wiles, B. (2008). Toward a theory of how young children learn to read in the ZDP: implications for research and practice. (Master’s thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University). Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-04302008. Accessed date 19 Nov 2021
Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5
Ziv, M., Smadja, M., & Aram, D. (2015). Preschool teachers’ reference to theory of mind topics in three storybook contexts: reading, reconstruction and telling. Teaching and Teacher Education, 45, 14–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.08.009
Funding
This work was funded by FONDECYT 1100721-1130786, the Early Adversity and Abuse Research Center, CUIDA, and ANID Millennium Science Initiative / Millennium Institute for Research on Depression and Personality.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
M.-P.S. is the supervisor and guide of the present article and contributed to project administration and funding acquisition. M.-E.A. is the second teacher of the project who also supervised the student’s process. J.D. and F.M. were the persons in charge of sample recruitment and statistical analyses. J.D., M.F., and C.S. wrote this article and reported the results. All authors wrote the discussion. M.-P.S. checked the grammar and coherence in the article.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethics approval
Data used in this article is related to the projects FONDECYT 1100721-1130786, which were approved by the Scientific Ethical Committee on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities of the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.
Appendix A
Appendix A
Primary caregivers form
Story no. 1: Where is my favorite toy?
This story portrays a child playing with his favorite toy, but then it is no longer. The story is unfinished to encourage dyad conversation. The adult card has two questions aimed at opening the conversation: What is happening? And how are the characters?
Story no. 2: Back home
This story portrays a child who returns home with his/her mother after buying eggs. Like the previous story, the story is unfinished to encourage conversation in the dyad. The adult card has two questions aimed at opening the conversation: What is happening? And how are the characters?
Educators form
Story no. 1: How do I do that?
This story portrays a child trying to put together a puzzle, but it is difficult to him. The adult card has two questions aimed at opening the conversation: What is happening? And how are the characters?
Story no. 2: Playing
This story portrays some children who are playing in the courtyard; they throw the aunt’s mug of water, who is writing. Like the previous story, the story is unfinished to encourage conversation in the dyad. The adult card has two questions aimed at opening the conversation: What is happening? And how are the characters?
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Santelices, MP., Duarte, J., Fischerworring, M. et al. Keeping Children in Mind: Mentalizing Capacities of Caregivers and Educators and the Development of Theory of Mind in Preschool Children. Trends in Psychol. 31, 845–864 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-021-00121-y
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43076-021-00121-y