Abstract
Bentonites are readily available clays used in the livestock industry as feed additives to reduce aflatoxin (AF) exposure; their potential interaction with nutrients is the main concern limiting their use, however. The objective of the present study was to determine the safety of a dietary sodium-bentonite (Na-bentonite) supplement as a potential AF adsorbent, using juvenile Sprague Dawley (SD) rats as a research model. Animals were fed either a control diet or a diet containing Na-bentonite at 0.25% and 2% (w/w) inclusion rate. Growth, serum, and blood biochemical parameters, including selected serum vitamins (A and E) and elements such as calcium (Ca), potassium (K), iron (Fe), and zinc (Zn) were measured. The mineral characteristics and the aflatoxin B1 sorption capacity of Na-bentonite were also determined. By the end of the study, males gained more weight than females in control and Na-bentonite groups (p ≤ 0.0001); the interaction between treatment and sex was not significant (p = 0.6780), however. Some significant differences between the control group and bentonite treatments were observed in serum biochemistry and vitamin and minerals measurements; however, parameters fell within reference clinical values reported for SD rats and no evidence of dose-dependency was found. Serum Na and Na/K ratios were increased, while K levels were decreased in males and females from Na-bentonite groups. Serum Zn levels were decreased only in males from Na-bentonite treatments. Overall, results showed that inclusion of Na-bentonite at 0.25% and 2% did not cause any observable toxicity in a 3-month rodent study.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Not applicable
References
Afriyie-Gyawu, E., Mackie, J., Dash, B., Wiles, M., Taylor, J., Huebner, H., Tang, L., Guan, H., Wang, J.-S., & Phillips, T. D. (2005). Chronic toxicological evaluation of dietary NovaSil clay in Sprague-Dawley rats. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A, 22, 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030500110758
Afriyie-Gyawu, E., Ankrah, N.-A., Huebner, H. J., Ofosuhene, M., Kumi, J., Johnson, N. M., Tang, L., Xu, L., Jolly, P. E., Ellis, W. O., Ofori-Adjei, D., Williams, J. H., Wang, J. S., & Phillips, T. D. (2008a). NovaSil clay intervention in Ghanaians at high risk for aflatoxicosis. I. Study design and clinical outcomes. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A, 25, 76–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030701458105
Afriyie-Gyawu, E., Wang, Z., Ankrah, N.-A., Xu, L., Johnson, N. M., Tang, L., Guan, H., Huebner, H. J., Jolly, P. E., Ellis, W. O., Taylor, R., Brattin, B., Ofori-Adjei, D., Williams, J. H., Wang, J.-S., & Phillips, T. D. (2008b). NovaSil clay does not affect the concentrations of vitamins A and E and nutrient minerals in serum samples from Ghanaians at high risk for aflatoxicosis. Food Additives & Contaminants Part A, 25, 872–884. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030701854758
Alabarse, F. G., Conceição, R. V., Balzaretti, N. M., Schenato, F., & Xavier, A. M. (2011). In-situ FTIR analyses of bentonite under high-pressure. Applied Clay Science, 51(1-2), 202–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2010.11.017
Almodovar-Cuevas, C., Navarro-Ruiz, A., Bastidas-Ramirez, B. E., Mora-Navarro, M. R., & Garzon, P. (1985). Valproic acid effects on leukocytes and platelets of Sprague-Dawley rats. General Pharmacology, 16, 423–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-3623(85)90210-1
Baltaci, A. K., Mogulkoc, R., & Halifeoglu, I. (2005). Effects of zinc deficiency and supplementation on plasma leptin levels in rats. Biological Trace Element Research, 104, 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1385/BTER:104:1:041
Briggs, G., & Spivey, M. R. (1954). Vitamin A deficiency in chicks produced by feeding bentonite in synthetic diets. Poultry Science, 33, 1044–1044.
Briggs, G. M., & Spivey-Fox, M. R. (1956). Vitamin A deficiency in chicks produced by adding high levels of bentonite to synthetic diets. Poultry Science, 35(3), 570–576. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0350570
Busby, W. F., & Wogan, G. N. (1984). Aflatoxins. In C. Searle (Ed.), Chemical Carcinogens (pp. 945–1136). American Chemical Society.
Chung, T. K., Erdman Jr., J. W., & Baker, D. H. (1990). Hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate: Effects on zinc, manganese, vitamin A, and riboflavin utilization. Poultry Science, 69, 1364–1370. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0691364
Code of Federal Regulations. (2010). Title 21. Food and drugs. Chapter I. Food and Drug Administration Department of Health and Human Services Subchapter E - Animal Drugs, Feeds, and Related Products. Part 582 Substances Generally Recognized as Safe. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=582
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST). (2003). Mycotoxins: Risks in plant, animal, and human systems. Task Force Report No. 139, Ames, IO. 13–85. CAST Publications. https://www.cast-science.org/wp-content/uploads/2002/11/CAST_R139_Mycotoxins_Risks_Plant_Animal_Health_Systems.pdf
Deng, Y., Barrientos-Velázquez, A. L., Billes, F., & Dixon, J. B. (2010). Bonding mechanisms between aflatoxin B1 and smectite. Applied Clay Science, 50, 92–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2010.07.008
Diaz, D. E., Hagler Jr., W. M., Blackwelder, J. T., Eve, J. A., Hopkins, B. A., Anderson, K. L., Jones, F. T., & Whitlow, L. W. (2004). Aflatoxin binders II: reduction of aflatoxin M1 in milk by sequestering agents of cows consuming aflatoxin in feed. Mycopathologia, 157, 233–241. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:myco.0000020587.93872.59
Dixon, J. B., Kannewischer, I., Tenorio-Arvide, M. G., & Barrientos-Velazquez, A. L. (2008). Aflatoxin sequestration in animal feeds by quality-labeled smectite clays: An introductory plan. Applied Clay Science, 40, 201–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2007.10.010
EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP). (2010). Statement on the establishment of guidelines for the assessment of additives from the functional group ‘substances for reduction of the contamination of feed by mycotoxins. EFSA Journal, 8, 1693–1700. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1693
EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP). (2017). Scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of bentonite as a technological feed additive for all species. EFSA Journal, 15(12), 5096–5109. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2017.5096
Environmental Protection Agency. (1994). SW-846 method 7470: Mercury in liquid waste (Manual cold water vapor technique). https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-12/documents/7470a.pdf
Environmental Protection Agency. (2007a). SW-846 method 3051A: Microwave assisted acid digestion of sediments, sludges, soils and oils. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-12/documents/3051a.pdf
Environmental Protection Agency. (2007b). SW-846 method 6020A: Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/homeland-security-research/epa-method-6020a-sw-846-inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry_.html
Environmental Protection Agency. (2007c). SW-846 method 8290A: Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) by high-resolution gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRGC/HRMS). https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-01/documents/sw846method8290a.pdf
Food and Drug Administration-FDA. (2019). Sec. 683.100 Action Levels for aflatoxins in Animal Food. Compliance policy guide. Guidance for FDA staff. https://www.fda.gov/media/121202/download
Giles, C. H., MacEwan, T. H., Nakhwa, S. N., & Smith, D. (1960). Studies in adsorption. Part XI. A system of classification of solution adsorption isotherms, and its use in diagnosis of adsorption mechanisms and in measurement of specific surface areas of solids. Journal of the Chemical Society, 14, 3973–3993. https://doi.org/10.1039/JR9600003973
Grant, P. G., & Phillips, T. D. (1998). Isothermal adsorption of aflatoxin B1 on HSCAS clay. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46, 599–605. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf970604v
Gray, S. J., Ward, T. L., Southern, L. L., & Ingram, D. R. (1998). Interactive effects of sodium bentonite and coccidiosis with monensin or salinomycin in chicks. Poultry Science, 77, 600–604. https://doi.org/10.1093/ps/77.4.600
GSFA Online. Updated up to the 42nd Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. (2019). Food Additive Details Calcium sulfate (516) Codex Alimentarius Commission; UN Food and Agricultural Organization; Rome, Italy) https://www.fao.org/gsfaonline/additives/details.html?id=274.
Hanh, N. T., Ngoc-Bich, P. T., & Thanh-Thao, H. T. (2019). Acute and subchronic oral toxicity assessment of calcium hydroxyapatite-alginate in animals. Vietnam Journal of Chemistry, 57(1), 16–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/vjch.201960002
Harvey, R. B., Phillips, T. D., Ellis, J. A., Kubena, L. F., Huff, W. E., & Petersen, H. D. (1991). Effects of aflatoxin M1 residues in milk by addition of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to aflatoxin-contaminated diets of dairy cows. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 52, 1556–1559 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1659263/
Hassan, A. A., Abu Hafsa, S. H., Elghandour, M. M. M. Y., Kanth-Reddy, P. R., Cedillo-Monroy, J., & Salem, A. Z. M. (2019). Dietary supplementation with sodium bentonite and coumarin alleviates the toxicity of aflatoxin B1 in rabbits. Toxicon, 171, 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.09.014
Hawkins, R., & Egelstaff, P. A. (1980). Interfacial water structure in montmorillonite from neutron diffraction experiments. Clays and Clay Minerals, 28, 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1980.0280103
Hinton, D. M., Myers, M. J., Raybourne, R. A., Francke-Carroll, S., Sotomayor, R. E., Shaddock, J., Warbritton, A., & Chou, M. W. (2003). Immunotoxicity of aflatoxins in rats: Effects on lymphocytes and the inflammatory response in a chronic intermittent dosing study. Toxicological Sciences, 73, 362–377. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfg074
Holmgren, G. G. S., Juve, R. L., & Geschwender, R. C. (1977). A mechanically controlled variable rate leaching device. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 41, 1207–1208. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1977.03615995004100060041x
International Agency for Research in Cancer-IARC. (2012). Chemical agents and related occupations. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Volume 100F. WHO Press.
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Meeting. (57th: 2001: Rome, Italy). (2002). Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants / prepared by the fifty-seventh meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/42501.
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Meeting (67th : 2006 : Geneva, Switzerland) & International Programme on Chemical Safety. (2007). Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants./ prepared by the sixty-seventh meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JEFCA). World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43645.
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), World Health Organization & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (1989). Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants / prepared by the 33rd meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, Geneva, 21-30 March 1989. Cambridge University Press. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/41268.
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JEFCA). World Health Organization & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2011). Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants / seventy-third report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). World Health Organization. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/44515/WHO_TRS_960_eng.pdf?sequence=1.
Kannewischer, I., Tenorio-Arvide, M. G., White, G. N., & Dixon, J. B. (2006). Smectite clays as adsorbents of aflatoxin B1: Initial steps. Clay Science, 12, 199–204. https://doi.org/10.11362/jcssjclayscience1960.12.Supplement2_199
Kohn, D. F., & Clifford, C. B. (2002). Biology and diseases of rats. In J. Fox, L. Anderson, F. Loew, & F. Quimby (Eds.), Laboratory Animal Medicine (pp. 128–131). Academic Press.
Kruskal, W. H., & Wallis, W. A. (1952). Use of ranks in one-criterion variance analysis. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 47, 583–621. https://doi.org/10.2307/2280779
Laughland, D. H., & Phillips, W. E. J. (1954). The effect of sodium bentonite administration on vitamin A metabolism in the rat. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, 32, 593–599. https://doi.org/10.1139/o54-066
Laughland, D. H., & Phillips, W. E. J. (1956). The effect of dietary sodium bentonite on the rate of growth of chicks. Poultry Science, 35, 1050–1054. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0351050
Ledoux, D. R., Rottinghaus, G. E., Bermudez, A. J., & Alonso-Debolt, M. (1999). Efficacy of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to ameliorate the toxic effects of aflatoxin in broiler chicks. Poultry Science, 78, 204–210. https://doi.org/10.1093/ps/78.2.204
Lillie, L. E., Temple, N. J., & Florence, L. Z. (1996). Reference values for young normal Sprague-Dawley rats: weight gain, hematology, and clinical chemistry. Human and Experimental Toxicology, 15, 612–616. https://doi.org/10.1177/096032719601500802
Madejová, J., & Komadel, P. (2001). Baseline studies of the clay minerals society source clays: Infrared methods. Clays and Clay Minerals, 49(5), 410–432. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2001.0490508
Mann, H. B., & Whitney, D. R. (1947). On a test of whether one of two random variables is stochastically larger than the other. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 18, 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177730491
Marroquin-Cardona, A., Deng, Y., Taylor, J. F., Hallmark, C. T., Johnson, N. M., & Phillips, T. D. (2009). In vitro and in vivo characterization of mycotoxin-binding additives used for animal feeds in Mexico. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A., 26, 733–743. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030802641872
Marroquin-Cardona, A., Deng, Y., Garcia-Mazcorro, J. F., Johnson, N. M., Mitchell, N., Tang, L., Robinson II, A., Taylor, J., Wang, J.-S., & Phillips, T. D. (2011). Characterization and safety of uniform particle size NovaSil clay as a potential aflatoxin enterosorbent. Applied Clay Science, 54, 248–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2011.09.009
McKenna, D. (2006). Myopathy, hypokalemia, and pica (geophagia) in pregnancy. Ulster Medical Journal, 75, 159–160 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1891740/
Melamed, A., & Pitkänen, P. (1996). Chemical and mineralogical aspects of water-bentonite interactions. Technical Research Centre of Finland, 28, 1–36 https://www.vttresearch.com/sites/default/files/pdf/tiedotteet/1996/T1766.pdf
Mulder, I., Tenorio Arvide, M. G., White, G. N., & Dixon, J. B. (2008). Smectite clay sequestration of aflatoxin B1: mineral dispersivity and morphology. Clays and Clay Minerals, 56, 559–571. https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.2008.0560509
Office of the Texas State Chemist (OTSC). (2011). http://otscweb.tamu.edu/Laws/PDF/FeedRules.pdf
Oueslati, W., Ammar, M., & Chorfi, N. (2015). Quantitative XRD analysis of the structural changes of Ba-exchanged montmorillonite: Effect of an in situ hydrous perturbation. Minerals, 5, 507–526. https://doi.org/10.3390/min5030507
Palacios, S., Ramirez, M., & Lilue, M. (2020). Clinical study of the tolerability of calcium carbonate–casein microcapsules as a dietary supplement in a group of postmenopausal women. Drugs in Context, 9, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.7573/dic.2020-1-4
Paluszkiewicz, C., Holtzer, M., & Bobrowski, A. (2008). FTIR analysis of bentonite in moulding sands. Journal of Molecular Structure, 880, 109–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2008.01.028
Phillips, T. D. (1999). Dietary clay in the chemoprevention of aflatoxin-induced disease. Toxicological Sciences, 52, 118–126. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/52.suppl_1.118
Phillips, T. D., Afriyie-Gyawu, E., Wang, J. S., Williams, J., & Huebner, H. (2006). The potential of aflatoxin sequestering clay. In D. Barug, D. Bhatnagar, H. P. van Egmond, J. W. van der Kamp, W. A. van Osenbruggen, & A. Visconti (Eds.), The mycotoxin factbook (pp. 329–346). Wageningen Academic Publishers.
Phillips, T. D., Afriyie-Gyawu, E., Williams, J., Huebner, H., Ankrah, N.-A., Ofori-Adjei, D., Jolly, P., Johnson, N., Taylor, J., Marroquin-Cardona, A., Xu, L., Tang, L., & Wang, J.-S. (2009). Reducing human exposure to aflatoxin through the use of clay: A review. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A, 25, 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030701567467
Pimpukdee, K., Kubena, L. F., Bailey, C. A., Huebner, H. J., Afriyie-Gyawu, E., & Phillips, T. D. (2004). Aflatoxin-induced toxicity and depletion of hepatic vitamin A in young broiler chicks: Protection of chicks in the presence of low levels of NovaSil PLUS in the diet. Poultry Science, 83, 737–744. https://doi.org/10.1093/ps/83.5.737
Rhoades, J. D., & Clark, M. (1978). Sampling procedures and chemical methods in use at the U.S. Salinity Laboratory for characterizing salt-affected soils and waters. U.S. Salinity Laboratory USDA.
Rupérez, F. J., Mach, M., & Barbas, C. (2004). Direct liquid chromatography method for retinol, α- and γ-tocopherols in rat plasma. Journal of Chromatography B, 800, 225–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2003.10.016
Santurio, J. M., Mallmann, C. A., Rosa, A. P., Appel, G., Heer, A., Dageforde, S., & Bottcher, M. (1999). Effect of sodium bentonite on the performance and blood variables of broiler chickens intoxicated with aflatoxins. British Poultry Science, 40, 115–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071669987935
Seifi, B., Kadkhodaee, M., Zahmatkesh, M., Golab, F., & Bakhshi, E. (2009). Changes in serum and renal vitamin E levels in deoxycorticosterone acetate–salt hypertensive rats. Transplantation Proceedings, 41, 2910–2911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2009.07.007
Severance Jr., H. W., Holt, T., Patrone, N. A., & Chapman, L. (1988). Profound muscle weakness and hypokalemia due to clay ingestion. Southern Medical Journal, 81, 272–274. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007611-198802000-00033
Shryock, T. R., Klink, P. R., Readnour, R. S., & Tonkinson, L. V. (1994). Effect of bentonite incorporated in a feed ration with tilmicosin in the prevention of induced mycoplasma gallisepticum airsacculitis in broiler chickens. Avian Diseases, 38, 501–505.
Slob, A. K., & van der Werff Ten Bosch, J. J. (1975). Sex differences in body growth in the rat. Physiology & Behavior, 14(3), 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(75)90044-x
Smela, M. E., Currier, S. S., Bailey, E. A., & Essigmann, J. M. (2001). The chemistry and biology of aflatoxin B1: From mutational spectrometry to carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis, 22, 535–545. https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/22.4.535
Smith, E. E., Phillips, T. D., Ellis, J. A., Harvey, R. B., Kubena, L. F., Thompson, J., & Newton, G. M. (1994). Dietary hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate reduction of aflatoxin M1 residue in dairy goat milk and effects on milk production and components. Journal of Animal Science, 72, 677–682. https://doi.org/10.2527/1994.723677x
Soukup, D. A., Buck, B. J., & Harris, W. (2008). Preparing soils for mineralogical analyses. In A. L. Ulery & L. R. Drees (Eds.), Methods of soil analysis: Part 5-Mineralogical Methods (pp. 13–31). Soil Science Society of America Inc. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser5.5.c2
Sunar, F., Baltaci, A. K., Ergene, N., & Mogulkoc, R. (2009). Zinc deficiency and supplementation in ovariectomized rats: their effect on serum estrogen and progesterone levels and their relation to calcium and phosphorus. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 22, 150–154 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19339224/
Trivedi, T. H., Daga, G. L., & Yeolekar, M. E. (2005). Geophagia leading to hypokalemic quadriparesis in a postpartum patient. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 53, 205–207 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15926605/
Tukey, J. W. (1977). Exploratory data analysis. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Turner, P. C., Moore, S. E., Hall, A. J., Prentice, A. M., & Wild, C. P. (2003). Modification of immune function through exposure to dietary aflatoxin in Gambian children. Environmental Health Perspectives, 111, 217–220. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.5753
Uddin, F. (2018). Montmorillonite: An introduction to properties and utilization. In M. Zoveidavianpoor (Ed.), Current topics in the utilization of clay in industrial and medical applications. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.77987
Ukaonu, C., Hill, D. A., & Christensen, F. (2003). Hypokalemic myopathy in pregnancy caused by clay ingestion. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 102, 1169–1171. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0029-7844(03)00705-1
Wang, P., Afriyie-Gyawu, E., Tang, Y., Johnson, N. M., Xu, L., Tang, L., Huebner, H. J., Ankrah, N.-A., Ofori-Adjei, D., Ellis, W., Jolly, P. E., Williams, J. H., Wang, J.-S., & Phillips, T. D. (2008). NovaSil clay intervention in Ghanaians at high risk for aflatoxicosis: II. Reduction in biomarkers of aflatoxin exposure in blood and urine. Food Additives and Contaminants Part A, 25, 622–634. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030701598694
Wedekind, K. J., & Baker, D. H. (1990). Zinc bioavailability in feed-grade sources of zinc. Journal of Animal Science, 68, 684–689. https://doi.org/10.2527/1990.683684x
Weinmann, A. R. M., Oliveira, M. S., Jorge, S. M., & Martins, A. R. (1999). Simultaneous high-performance liquid chromatographic determination of retinol by fluorometry and of tocopherol by ultraviolet absorbance in the serum of newborns. Journal of Chromatography B, 729, 231–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4347(99)00155-3
Wiley, A. S., & Katz, S. H. (1998). Geophagy in pregnancy: a test of a hypothesis. Current Anthropology, 39, 532–545. https://doi.org/10.1086/204769
Wilson, M. J. (2003). Clay mineralogical and related characteristics of geophagic materials. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 29, 1525–1547. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024262411676
Wolford, S. T., Schroer, R. A., Gohs, F. X., Gallo, P. P., Brodeck, M., Falk, H. B., & Ruhren, R. (1986). Reference range data for serum chemistry and hematology values in laboratory animals. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 18, 161–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287398609530859
Young, S. L., Sherman, P. W., Lucks, J. B., & Pelto, G. H. (2011). Why on earth?: Evaluating hyphotheses abouth the physiological functions of human geophagy. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 86, 97–120. https://doi.org/10.1086/659884
Acknowledgments
The authors thank AMCOL International Corporation (Hoffman Estates, Illinois) for funding this research and for providing the Na-bentonite used in the present study.
Code Availability
Not applicable
Funding
Funding sources are as stated in the Acknowledgments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Alicia G. Marroquin-Cardona: experimental work of animal study, samples collection, writing, submission.
Youjun Deng: supervision of mineral analyses, revision of data and manuscript.
Jose F. Garcia-Mazcorro: statistical analysis.
Natalie M. Johnson: experimental work in animal study, sample collection.
Nicolle J. Mitchell: experimental work in animal study, sample collection.
Lili Tang: vitamin analyses.
Jia-Sheng Wang: vitamin analyses.
Roger B. Harvey: co-advisor, revision of documents.
Timothy D. Phillips: graduate advisor and sponsor of this research.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
The animal use protocol (AUP) 2008-39 was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) at Texas A&M University.
Consent to Participate
Not applicable
Consent for Publication
All authors give consent for publication.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Marroquín-Cardona, A.G., Deng, Y., Garcia-Mazcorro, J.F. et al. Aflatoxin B1 Sorption and Safety of Dietary Sodium Bentonite in Sprague-Dawley Rats. Clays Clay Miner. 70, 165–181 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42860-022-00173-w
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42860-022-00173-w