Abstract
Complex posttraumatic stress disorder (C-PTSD) can result from ongoing and repeated exposure to trauma, particularly in childhood. The trauma is frequently in the form of physical, emotional, or sexual abuse perpetrated by those in a position of trust such as a parent or other relative, teacher, caregiver, or clergyman. Treating those with C-PTSD is centered on the formation of a strong therapeutic alliance. This article examines how to diagnose C-PTSD and how the therapeutic alliance can be built with patients who have had their trust betrayed by the very people who should have protected them. It also covers a three-part approach to therapy that focuses on (1) coping in the here and now, (2) addressing the root cause of trauma, and (3) moving forward.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.References
Al-Shawi, A.F., & Lafta, R.K. (2015). Effect of adverse childhood experiences on physical health in adulthood: Results of a study conducted in Baghdad city. J Family Community Med. 22(2): 78-84. https://doi.org/10.4103/2230-8229.155374
Annan, J., Brier, M., & Aryemo, F. (2009). From “rebel” to “returnee”: Daily life and reintegration for young soldiers in Northern Uganda. Journal of Adolescent Research, 24(6), 639-667. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558409350499
Bellis, M.A., Lowey, H., Leckenby, N., Hughes, K. & Harrison, D. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences: Retrospective study to determine their impact on adult health behavior and health outcomes in a UK population. J of Public Health, 36(1), 81-91. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdt038
Briere, J. (2011). Trauma Symptoms Inventory - 2 (TSI-2). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. J of Consult and Clin Psychol., 68(5), 748-766. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.68.5.748
Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Maercker, A., Bryant, R.A., Humayun, A., Jones, L. M., Kagee, A., Rousseau, C., Somasundaram, D., Suzuki, Y., Wessely, S., van Ommeren, M., & Reed, G.M. (2017). A review of current evidence regarding the ICD-11 proposals for diagnosing PTSD and complex PTSD. Clin Psychol Rev. 58, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.001
Children’s Bureau, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Administration for Children and Families, US Department of Health and Human Services (2004). National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS) Child File, 2001. National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect. 10.34681/DBM1-B519
Cloitre M., Courtois C.A., Charuvastra A., Carapezza R., Stolbach B.C., & Green B.L. (2011) Treatment of Complex PTSD: Results of the ISTSS expert clinician survey on best practices. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 24(6), 615-627. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20697
Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., Bisson, J.I., Brewin, C.T., Roberts, N.P., Karatzias, T., & Shevlin, M. (2019). ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: A population-based study. J of Trauma Stress. 32(6), 833-842. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22454
Cloitre, M., Koenen, K.C., Cohen, L.R., & Han, H. (2002). Skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation followed by exposure: A phase-based treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse. J of Consult and Clin Psychol, 70(5), 1067–1074. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.70.5.1067
Cloitre, M., Stovall-McClough, K. C., Nooner, K., Zorbas, P., Cherry, S., Jackson, C. L., Gan, W., & Petkova, E. (2010). Treatment for PTSD related to childhood abuse: A randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry, 167(8), 915–924. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09081247
Courtois C.A. (2010). Healing the Incest Wound: Adult Survivors in Therapy Second Edition. W.W. Norton & Company.
Courtois, C. A., Ford, J. D., Cloitre, M., & Schnyder, U. (2020) Best Practices in Psychotherapy for Adults. In J. D. Ford and C. A. Courtois (Eds.) Treating Complex Traumatic Stress Disorders, Second Edition. The Guilford Press.
Danieli, Y. (1998) International Handbook of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma. Springer US.
Farber, B.A., Suzuki, J.A., & Lynch, D.A. (2018). Positive regard and psychotherapy outcome: A meta-analytic review. Psychotherapy, 55(4), 411-423. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000171
Felitti, V.J., Anda, R.F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D.F., Spitz, A.M., Edwards, V., Koss, M.P., Marks, J.S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. Am J Prev Med., 14(4), 245-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8
Fillol, C.F., Serrano-Ibanez, E.R., Ruiz-Parraga, G.T., Maestre, C.R., Zarazaga, R.E., & Martinez A.E.L. (2018). Effective therapies for the treatment of complex posttraumatic stress disorder: A qualitative systematic review. Salud Mental. 41(2), 81-90. 10.17711/SM.0185-3325.2018.013
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2015). Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime, and abuse: Results from the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence. JAMA Pediatr, 169(8), 746-754. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0676
First, M., William, J., Karg, R., & Spitzer, R. (2016). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 Disorders, Clinician Version (SCID-5-CV). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
Fisher J. (2021) Transforming the Living Legacy of Trauma: A Workbook for Survivors and Therapists. Pesi Publishing & Media.
Ford, J.D. & Courtois, C.A. (2014). Complex PTSD, affect dysregulation, and borderline personality disorder. Bord Personal Disord Emot Dysregul 1, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/2051-6673-1-9
Ford, J.D., Courtois, C.A., Steele ,K., van der Hart, O., & Nijenhuis, E.R.S. (2005). Treatment of complex posttraumatic self-dysregulation. J of Traumatic Stress, 18(5), 437-447. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20051
Forward S. (2002). Toxic Parents: Overcoming Their Hurtful Legacy and Reclaiming Your Life. Bantam.
Franco, F. (2020). Broadening Perspectives on Trauma: Considering the Role of Social Affects and Shame in Complex PTSD. Complex Trauma Perspectives: ISTSS Complex Trauma Special Interest Group Newsletter. 1, 15-17.
Frewen, P., Zhu, J., & Lanius, R. (2019). Lifetime traumatic stressors and adverse childhood experiences uniquely predict concurrent PTSD, complex PTSD, and dissociative subtype of PTSD symptoms whereas recent non-traumatic stressors do not: results from an online survey study. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 10(1), 1606625. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1606625
Harvey, M. R. (1996) An ecological view of psychological trauma and trauma recovery. J of Trauma Stress, 9(1), 3-23.
Haselgruber A., Solva K., & Lueger-Schuster B. (2020) Validation of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD in foster children using the International Trauma Questionnaire. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 141(1), 60-73. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13100
Horvath, A.O., & Luborsky, L (1993). The role of the therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(2), 561-573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.61.4.561
Jobes D. A. (2020). Commonsense recommendations for standard care of suicidal risk. Journal of Health Service Psychology, 46(4), 141-148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42843-020-00020-3
Karatzias, T., Hyland, P., Bradley, A., Cloitre, M., Roberts, N.P., Bisson, J. I., & Shevlin, M. (2019). Risk factors and comorbidity of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD: Findings from a trauma-exposed population based sample of adults in the United Kingdom. Depression & Anxiety, 36(9), 887-894. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22934
Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., Fyvie, C., Hyland, P., Efthymiadou, E., Wilson, D., Roberts, N., Bisson, J.I. Brewin, C.R. & Cloitre, M. (2017). Evidence of distinct profiles of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) based on the new ICD-11 trauma questionnaire (ICD-TQ). J of Affect Disord., 207, 181-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.032
Krug E.G., Mercy, J.A., Dahlberg, L.L. & Zwi, A.B. eds. (2002), World Report on Violence and Health Geneva, World Health Organization. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11133-0
Maercker, A., Forstmeier, S., Wagner, B., Glaesmer, H. & Brähler, E. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder in Germany. Results of a nationwide epidemiological study. Nervenarzt. 79(5), 577-86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00115-008-2467-5
Levenson, J. (2017). Trauma Informed Social Work Practice. Social Work, 62(2), 105-113. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swx001
Maercker, A., & Horn, A. B. (2013). A socio-interpersonal perspective on PTSD: The case for environments and interpersonal processes. Clin Psychol & Psychother, 20(6), 465-481. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1805
Maercker, A., & Hecker, T. (2016). Broadening perspectives on trauma and recovery: A sociointerpersonal view of PTSD. Eur J Psychotraumatol, 7(1), 29303. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v7.29303
Merrick, M.T., Ports, K. A., Ford, D. C., Afifi, T. O., Gershoff, E.T. & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2017). Unpacking the impact of adverse childhood experiences on adult mental health. Child Abuse Negl. 69,10-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.03.016
Monnat, S. M. & Chandler, R. F. (2015). Long term physical health consequences of adverse childhood experiences. Sociol Q., 56(4), 723-752. https://doi.org/10.1111/tsq.12107
Mueller, J., Moergeli, H., & Maercker, A. (2008). Disclosure and social acknowledgement as predictors of recovery from posttraumatic stress: A longitudinal study in crime victims. Can J of Psychiatry, 53(3), 160-168. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370805300306
Rothbaum, B. O., Meadows, E. A., Resick, P., & Foy, D. W. (2000). Cognitive-behavioral therapy. In E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane, & M. J. Friedman (Eds.), Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies pp. 320-325. Guilford Press.
Sadowski, L.S., Hunter, W.M., Bangdiwala, S.I. & Munoz, S.R. (2004). The world studies of abuse in the family environment (WorldSAFE): A model of a multi-national study of family violence. Inj Control and Safe Promot, 11(2), 81-90. https://doi.org/10.1080/15660970412331292306
Schauer M., Robjant K., Elbert T., & Neuner F. (2020) Narrative Exposure Therapy. In J.D. Ford and C. A. Courtois (Eds.) Treating Complex Traumatic Stress Disorders, Second Edition. The Guilford Press.
Schore, A. N. (2003). Affect Dysregulation and Disorders of the Self. Norton & Company.
Simon, N., Roberts, N. P., Lewis, C. E., van Gelderen, M. J., & Bisson, J. I. (2019). Associations between perceived social support, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD): implications for treatment. Euro J psychotraumatol, 10(1), 1573129. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1573129
Steil, R., Dyer, A., Priebe, K., Kleindienst, N., & Bohus, M. (2011). Dialectical behavior therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood sexual abuse: A pilot study of an intensive residential treatment program. J Trauma Stress, 24(1), 102–106. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20617
Street, A. E., Gibson, L. E., & Holohan, D. R. (2005). Impact of childhood traumatic events, trauma-related guilt, and avoidant coping strategies on PTSD symptoms in female survivors of domestic violence. J Trauma Stress, 18(3), 245-252. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20026
van der Kolk B. A., Roth S., Pelcovitz D., Sunday S., Spinazzola J. (2005). Disorders of extreme stress: The empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma. J Trauma Stress, 18(5), 389-399.
van der Kolk, B. (2015). The Body Keeps the Score. Penguin Random House.
World Health Organization (2018). International Statistical Classification of Disease and Related Health Problems (11th ed.; ICD-11). Retrieved from https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en
Yehuda, R., Daskalakis, N.P., Lehrner, A., Desarnaud, F., Bader, H.N., Makotkine, I., Flory, J.D., Bierer, L.M., & Meaney, M.J. (2014). Influences of maternal and paternal PTSD on epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in Holocaust survivor offspring. Am J Psychiatry. 171(8), 872-880. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13121571
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Franco, F. Understanding and Treating C-PTSD. J Health Serv Psychol 47, 85–93 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42843-021-00038-1
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42843-021-00038-1