Abstract
Providing effective reading instruction to parents with low literacy is imperative due to the significant implications of literacy for children and their families. Adult education programs that teach reading play an important role in improving literacy outcomes for parents who need support. The present study evaluated the effects of a behavioral skills training package (BST) on training adult literacy tutors to implement the steps of BST when teaching parents. Four adult literacy tutors participated in the study along with one parent with low literacy. The primary dependent variable was the percentage of steps of the BST package implemented correctly during tutor training probe measures. Secondary measures were taken on the parent’s performance of each step of the literacy activities on which they were trained. Following the BST session, tutor performance improved when implementing the steps of the BST package with parents and parent confederates during maintenance probes. Treatment acceptability measures suggested high approval for the training package. Results and practical considerations when training adult education tutors are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baker, S. K., Santoro, L. E., Chard, D. J., Fien, H., Park, Y., & Otterstedt, J. (2013). An evaluation of an explicit read aloud intervention taught in whole-classroom formats in first grade. The Elementary School Journal, 113(3), 331–358. https://doi.org/10.1086/668503
Baker, S. K., Smolkowski, K., Katz, R., Fien, H., Seeley, J. R., & Kame’enui, E. J., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Reading fluency as a predictor of reading proficiency in low-performing, high-poverty schools. School Psychology Review, 37(1), 18–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2008.12087905
Belzer, A. (2007). Volunteer one-to-one tutoring: Critical factors in providing quality instruction. In A. Belzer (Ed.) Toward defining and improving quality in adult basic education: Issues and challenges (pp. 107–124). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203936740
Brock, M. E., Cannella-Malone, H. I., Seaman, R. L., Andzik, N. R., Schaefer, J. M., Page, E. J., Barczak, M. A., & Dueker, S. A. (2017). Findings across practitioner training studies in special education: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 84(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402917698008
Brown, M. W., Hurd, C., Kahn, S., Fink, C., & Marxer, M. (1947). Goodnight moon. Harper Collins.
Ceprano, M. A. (1995). Strategies and practices of individuals who tutor adult illiterates voluntarily. Journal of Adolescent Adult Literacy, 39(1), 56–64.
Charlop, M. H., Lang, R., & Rispoli, M. (2018). Conclusion: Play and social skills as behavioral cusps. In N. S. Nirbhay (Ed.), Play and social skills for children with autism spectrum disorder. Evidence-based practices in behavioral health (pp. 155–162). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72500-0_9
Dogan, R. K., King, M. L., Fischetti, A. T., Lake, C. M., Mathews, T. L., & Warzak, W. J. (2017). Parent-implemented behavioral skills training of social skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 50, 805–818. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.411
Erath, T. G., DiGennaro Reed, F. D., Sundermeyer, H. W., Brand, D., Novak, M. D., Harbison, M. J., & Shears, R. (2019). Enhancing the training integrity of human service staff using pyramidal behavioral skills training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(1), 449–464. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.608
Fetherston, A. M., & Sturmey, P. (2014). The effects of behavioral skills training on instructor and learner behavior across responses and skill sets. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(2), 541–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2013.11.006
Fien, H., Santoro, L., Baker, S. K., Park, Y., Chard, D. J., Williams, S., & Haria, P. (2011). Enhancing teacher read alouds with small-group vocabulary instruction for students with low vocabulary in first-grade classrooms. School Psychology Review, 40(2), 307–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2011.12087720
Flesch, R. F. (1981). How to write plain English: A book for lawyers. Consumers.
Gianoumis, S., Seiverling, L., & Sturmey, P. (2012). The effects of behavior skills training on correct teacher implementation of natural language paradigm teaching skills and child behavior. Behavioral Interventions, 27(2), 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1334
Greer, R. D. (2020). The selector in behavior selection. The Psychological Record, 70(4), 543–558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40732-020-00385-3
Hernandez, M. L. (2019) Behavioral Skills Training and literacy: Supporting reading instructors in adult education centers (Publication No. 3517) [Doctoral dissertation, Western Michigan University]. ScholarWorks@WMU. https://scholarworks-wmich-edu.libproxy.library.wmich.edu/dissertations/3517
Hernandez, D. J. (2012). Double jeopardy: How third-grade reading skills and poverty influence high school graduation. Annie E. Casey Foundation. https://eric.ed.gov/?q=Double+jeopardy%3a+How+third+grade+reading+skills+and+poverty+influence+high+school+graduation.&id=ED518818
Homlitas, C., Rosales, R., & Candel, L. (2014). A further evaluation of behavioral skills training for implementation of the picture exchange communication system. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47(1), 198–203. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.99
Horner, R. D., & Baer, D. M. (1978). Multiple-probe technique: A variation on the multiple baseline. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11(1), 189–196. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1978.11-189
Jones, C. D., & Reutzel, D. R. (2012). Enhanced alphabet knowledge instruction: Exploring a change of frequency, focus, and distributed cycles of review. Reading Psychology, 33(5), 448–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702711.2010.545260
Kirkpatrick, M., Akers, J., & Rivera, G. (2019). Use of behavioral skills training with teachers: A systematic review. Journal of Behavioral Education, 28, 344–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-019-09322-z
Kirkpatrick, M., Rehfeld, D. M., Akers, J. S., Rivera, G., & Sulak, T. N. (2021). Using behavioral skills training with preservice teachers in the university classroom. Behavioral Interventions, 36(1), 145–158. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1764
Kornacki, L. T., Ringdahl, J. E., Sjostrom, A., & Nuernberger, J. E. (2013). A component analysis of a behavioral skills training package used to teach conversation skills to young adults with autism spectrum and other developmental disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7(11), 1370–1376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2013.07.012
Lennox, S. (2013). Interactive read-alouds—An avenue for enhancing children’s language for thinking and understanding: A review of recent research. Early Childhood Education Journal, 41(5), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-013-0578-5
Lesgold, A. M., & Welch-Ross, M. K. (2012). Improving adult literacy instruction: Options for practice and research. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/13242
Michigan Association of Intermediate School Administrators General Education Leadership Network Early Literacy Task Force (2017). Essential instructional practices in early literacy: K to 3. MAISA GELN. https://www.gomaisa.org/literacy-essentials/the-essentials/essential-instructional-practices-in-early-literacy-grades-k-to-3/
Nabeyama, B., & Sturmey, P. (2010). Using behavioral skills training to promote safe and correct staff guarding and ambulation distance of students with multiple physical disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(2), 341–345. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2010.43-341
Nigro-Bruzzi, D., & Sturmey, P. (2010). The effects of behavioral skills training on mand training by staff and unprompted vocal mands by children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(4), 757–761. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2010.43-757
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2013). Time for the U.S. to reskill?: What the survey of adult skills says. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264204904-en
Parsons, M. B., Rollyson, J. H., & Reid, D. H. (2012). Evidence-based staff training: A guide for practitioners. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5(2), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391819
Parsons, M. B., Rollyson, J. H., & Reid, D. H. (2013). Teaching practitioners to conduct behavioral skills training: A pyramidal approach for training multiple human service staff. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 6(2), 4–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391798
Perry, K. H., & Hart, S. J. (2012). “I’m just kind of winging it”: Preparing and supporting educators of adult refugee learners. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56(2), 110–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/JAAL.00112
Piasta, S. B., Purpura, D. J., & Wagner, R. K. (2010). Fostering alphabet knowledge development: A comparison of two instructional approaches. Reading and Writing, 23(6), 607–626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9174-x
Piasta, S. B., & Wagner, R. K. (2010). Learning letter names and sounds: Effects of instruction, letter type, and phonological processing skill. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105(4), 324–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2009.12.008
Pollard-Durodola, S. D., Gonzalez, J. E., Simmons, D. C., Kwok, O., Taylor, A. B., Davis, M. J., Minjung, K., & Simmons, L. (2011). The effects of an intensive shared book-reading intervention for preschool children at risk for vocabulary delay. Exceptional Children, 77(2), 161–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291107700202
ProLiteracy (2022). Adult literacy and basic education: The facts. ProLiteracy. https://www.proliteracy.org/Adult-Literacy-Facts
Rosales-Ruiz, J., & Baer, D. M. (1997). Behavioral cusps: A developmental and pragmatic concept for behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30(3), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1997.30-533
Rothwell, J. (2020). Assessing the economic gains of eradicating literacy nationally and regionally in the United States. Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy. https://www.barbarabush.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/BBFoundation_GainsFromEradicatingIlliteracy_9_8.pdf
Santoro, L. E., Chard, D. J., Howard, L., & Baker, S. K. (2011). Making the very most of classroom read-alouds to promote comprehension and vocabulary. The Reading Teacher, 61(5), 396–408. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.61.5.4
Schaefer, J. M., & Andzik, N. R. (2021). Evaluating behavioral skills training as an evidence-based practice when training parents to intervene with their children. Behavior Modification, 45(6), 887–910. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445520923996
Smith, S. G., Mattson, S. L., Aguilar, J., Pyle, N., & Higbee, T. S. (2022). Behavioral skills training with adult interventionists: A systematic review. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-022-00339-1
Suberman, R., & Cividini-Motta, C. (2020). Teaching caregivers to implement mand training using speech generating devices. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(2), 1097–1110. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.630
Thomas, B. R., Lafasakis, M., & Spector, V. (2016). Brief report: Using behavioral skills training to teach skateboarding skills to a child with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46, 3824–3829. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2900-8
Vostal, B. R., Mrachko, A. A., Vostal, M., & McCoy, A. (2021). Effects of group behavioral skills training on teacher candidates’ acquisition and maintenance of active listening. Journal of Behavioral Education, 31, 679–698. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-021-09431-8
Ward-Horner, J., & Sturmey, P. (2012). Component analysis of behavior skills training in functional analysis. Behavioral Interventions, 27(2), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1339
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest to disclose.
The datasets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request. No funding was received for this research.
Additional information
Author Note
This project was completed in partial fulfillment of the Ph.D. degree from Western Michigan University by the first author.
We thank Dr. Katie Mahaffy and Sarah Randall for their assistance with data collection.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Hernandez, M., Ross, D. & D’Arms, A. Behavioral Skills Training and Literacy: Supporting Reading Instructors in Adult Education Centers. Behav. Soc. Iss. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-024-00161-w
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-024-00161-w