Abstract
Early reading materials commonly include the simultaneous presentation of pictures and text. Despite the ubiquity of picture-text compounds, several researchers have found that this arrangement may impair the word-reading performances of young children. Specifically, a learner may accurately respond when the picture and text are presented together but show reduced accuracy when the text is presented alone. Additional research has not reported these same effects; yet, given the considerable range in participants, procedures, and experimental designs in this literature, it is unclear when or for whom picture-text compounds may impede reading performance. This descriptive review provides a synthesis of articles that compared participants’ word-reading performance during picture-text compound and text-only arrangements. Participant characteristics, target description, training and testing procedures, experimental design, and findings were coded for each article. A total of 37 experiments met the inclusion criteria, the small majority of which reported detrimental effects of picture-text compounds on word-reading performance (64.9%). Null findings were most common in experiments that utilized between-subjects designs, although procedural arrangements and participant descriptions varied considerably across experiments. Additional research is needed to better describe the conditions that may promote or inhibit control by the text in picture-text compounds and learner characteristics or histories that might predict these or similar overselective performances.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
* Studies were included in the descriptive review
Arlin, M. (1980). Commentary: A response to Harry Singer. Reading Research Quarterly, 15(4), 550–558. https://doi.org/10.2307/747279
Arlin, M., & ScottWebster, M. J. (1979). The effects of pictures on rate of learning sight words: A critique of the focal attention hypothesis. Reading Research Quarterly, 14(4), 645–660. https://doi.org/10.2307/747266
*Arlin, M., Scott, M., & Webster, J. (1978). The effects of pictures on rate of learning sight words: A critique of the focal attention hypothesis. Reading Research Quarterly, 645–660. https://doi.org/10.2307/747266
Baer, D. M. (1970). An age-irrelevant concept of development. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 16(3), 238–245. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23082475
Blanchard, J., & Mcnincth, G. (1984). The effects of anthropomorphism on word learning. The Journal of Educational Research, 78(2), 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1984.10885582
*Blischak, D. M., & McDaniel, M. A. (1995). Effects of picture size and placement on memory for written words. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 38(6), 1356–1362.https://doi.org/10.1044/jshr.3806.1356
*Braun, C. (1969). Interest-loading and modality effects on textual response acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly, 428–444. https://doi.org/10.2307/747148
Brookshire, J., Scharff, L. F. V., & Moses, L. E. (2002). The influence of illustrations on children’s book preferences and comprehension. Reading Psychology, 23(1), 323–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710290061391
Brown, A., Cariveau, T., Ellington, P., & Platt, D. F. (2022). Overselectivity during reading-related tasks for children at risk for reading failure. Learning and Motivation. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101849
Carney, R. N., & Levin, J. R. (2002). Pictorial illustrations still improve students’ learning from text. Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013176309260
Concannon, S. J. (1975). Illustrations in books for children: Review of research. The Reading Teacher, 29(3), 254–256. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20193998.
*Denburg, S. D. (1976). The interaction of picture and print in reading instruction (abstracted report). Reading Research Quarterly, 12(2), 176–189https://doi.org/10.2307/747241
Dickson, C. A., Wang, S. S., Lombard, K. M., & Dube, W. V. (2006). Overselective stimulus control in residential school students with intellectual disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 27(6), 618–631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2005.07.004
*Didden, R., Prinsen, H., & Sigafoos, J. (2000). The blocking effect of pictorial prompts on sight‐word reading. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33(3), 317–320.https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2000.33-317
Dittlinger, L. H., & Lerman, D. C. (2011). Further analysis of picture interference when teaching word recognition to children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(2), 341–349. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2011/44-341
*Duell, O. K. (1968). An analysis of prompting procedures for teaching a sight vocabulary. American Educational Research Journal, 5(4), 675–686.https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312005004675
*Elliott, R. T., & Zhang, Q. (1998). Interference in learning context-dependent words. Educational Psychology, 18(1), 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341980180101
Gomez-Najarro, J. (2020). Children’s intersecting identities matter: Beyond rabbits and princesses in the common core book exemplars. Children’s Literature in Education, 51(1), 392–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10583-019-09390-9
Haddaway, N. R., Grainger, M. J., & Gray, C. T. (2022). Citationchaser: A tool for transparent and efficient forward and backward citation chasing in systematic searching. Research Synthesis Methods, 13(1), 533–545. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1563
Harber, J. R. (1980). Effects of illustrations on reading performance: Implications for further LD research. Learning Disability Quarterly, 3(2), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.2307/1510508
*Hartley, R. N. (1968). An investigation of list types and cues to facilitate initial reading vocabulary acquisition. Psychonomic Science, 12(6), 251–252.https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03331295
*Hartley, R. N. (1970). Effects of list types and cues on the learning of word lists. Reading Research Quarterly, 97–121. https://doi.org/10.2307/747050
*Harzem, P., Lee, I., & Miles, T. R. (1976). The effects of pictures on learning to read. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46(3), 318–322.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1976.tb02328.x
*Hill, L. (1995). An exploratory study to investigate different methods for teaching sight vocabulary to people with learning disabilities of different aetiologies. Down Syndrome Research and Practice, 3(1), 23–28.https://doi.org/10.3104/reports.48
Hodkinson, A. (2017). Constructing impairment and disability in school reading schemes. Education, 45(5), 572–585. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2016.1143520
Johnson, D. F., & Cumming, W. W. (1968). Some determiners of attention. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 11(2), 157–166. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1968.11-157
Jones, S. H., St. Peter, C. C., & Ruckle, M. M. (2020). Reporting of demographic variables in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 53(3), 1304–1315. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.722
*Lang, R. J., & Solman, R. T. (1979). Effect of pictures on learning to read common nouns. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 49(2), 138–149.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1979.tb02408.x
Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (1996). Best practices in promoting reading comprehension in students with learning disabilities: 1976 to 1996. Remedial and Special Education, 18(4), 197–213. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193259701800402
*McDowell, E. E. (1982). Specific aspects of prompting and fading procedures in teaching beginning reading. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 55(3), 1103–1108.https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1982.55.3f.1103
McGeown, S., Bonsall, J., Andries, V., Howarth, D., & Wilkinson, K. (2020). Understanding reading motivation across different text types: Qualitative insights from children. Journal of Research in Reading, 43(4), 597–608. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12320
Miller, W. A. (1937). The picture crutch in reading. The Elementary English Review, 14(7), 263–264. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41381040.
Montare, A. (1979). Associative processes in learning-to-read: A reply to Samuels. Journal of Reading Behavior, X, I(2), 183–184.
*Montare, A., Elman, E., & Cohen, J. (1977). Words and pictures: A test of Samuels’ findings. Journal of Reading Behavior, 9(3), 269–285.
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., & Hibel, J. (2008). Matthew effects for whom? Learning Disability Quarterly, 31(1), 187–198. https://doi.org/10.2307/25474651
*Neville, D. R., & Woods, A. R. (1984). A comparison of the focal attention and contextual theories as they relate to the graphic similarity and the level of frequency of the words taught. Reading Psychology: An International Quarterly, 5(1–2), 119–127.https://doi.org/10.1080/0270271840050114
Newton, D. P. (1995). The role of pictures in learning to read. Educational Studies, 21(1), 119–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305569950210109
Ollila, L. O., & Olson, J. H. (1972). The effect on learning rate of pictures and realia in the presentation of words to kindergarteners. The Journal of Educational Research, 65(7), 312–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1972.10884328
Paré, G., Trudel, M., Jaana, M., & Kitsiou, S. (2015). Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews. Information & Management, 52(1), 183–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008
Peeck, J. (1993). Increasing picture effects in learning from illustrated text. Learning and Instruction, 3(1), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-4752(93)90006-L
Pfost, M., Hattie, J., Dörfler, T., & Artelt, C. (2014). Individual differences in reading development: A review of 25 years of empirical research on Matthew effects in reading. Review of Educational Research, 84(2), 203–244. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654313509492
*Pufpaff, L. A., Blischak, D. M., & Lloyd, L. L. (2000). Effects of modified orthography on the identification of printed words. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 105(1), 14–24.https://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2000)105<0014:EOMOOT>2.0.CO;2
Reschly, A. (2010). Reading and school completion: Critical connections and Matthew effects. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 26(1), 67–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560903397023
*Richardson, A. R., Lerman, D. C., Nissen, M. A., Luck, K. M., Neal, A. E., Bao, S., & Tsami, L. (2017). Can pictures promote the acquisition of sight‐word reading? An evaluation of two potential instructional strategies. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 50(1), 67–86.https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.354
*Rose, T. L., & Furr, P. M. (1984). Negative effects of illustrations as word cues. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17(6), 334–337.https://doi.org/10.1177/002221948401700605
Rusted, J., & Coltheart, M. (1979). Facilitation of children’s prose recall by the presence of pictures. Memory & Cognition, 7(5), 345–359. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196939
Samuels, S. J. (1970). Effects of pictures on learning to read, comprehension, and attitudes. Review of Educational Research, 40(3), 397–407. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543040003397
Samuels, S. J. (1977). Can pictures distract students from the printed word: A rebuttal. Journal of Reading Behavior, 9(4), 361–364.
Samuels, S. J., Biesbrock, E., & Terry, P. R. (1974). The effect of pictures on children’s attitudes toward presented stories. The Journal of Educational Research, 67(6), 243–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1974.10884617
*Samuels, S. J. (1967). Attentional process in reading: The effect of pictures on the acquisition of reading responses. Journal of Educational Psychology, 58(6), 337–342.https://doi.org/10.1037/h0020045
*Saunders, R. J., & Solman, R. T. (1984). The effect of pictures on the acquisition of a small vocabulary of similar sight‐words. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 54(3), 265–275.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1984.tb02590.x
Schlinger, H. D. (1992). Theory in behavior analysis: An application to child development. American Psychologist, 47(11), 1396–1410. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.47.11.1396
Sidman, M. (1960). Tactics of scientific research. Basic Books.
*Singer, H., Samuels, S. J., & Spiroff, J. (1974). The effect of pictures and contextual conditions on learning responses to printed words. Reading Research Quarterly, 555–567. https://doi.org/10.2307/747002
*Singer, H. (1980). Commentary: Sight word learning with and without pictures: A critique of Arlin, Scott, and Webster's research. Reading Research Quarterly, 15(2), 290–298.https://doi.org/10.2307/747329
*Singh N. N., & Solman, R. T., (1990). A stimulus control analysis of the picture-word problem in children who are mentally retarded: The blocking effect. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23(4), 525–532.https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1990.23-525
*Solman, R. T., & Wu, H. M. (1995). Pictures as feedback in single word learning. Educational Psychology, 15(3), 227–244.https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341950150301
*Solman, R. T., Singh, N. N., & Kehoe, E. J. (1992). Pictures block the learning of sightwords. Educational Psychology, 12(2), 143–153.https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341920120205
Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(4), 360–406. https://www.jstor.org/stable/747612.
Stromer, R., McIlvane, W. J., Dube, W. V., & Mackay, H. A. (1993). Assessing control by elements of complex stimuli in delayed matching to sample. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 59(1), 83–102. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1993.59-83
*Torcasio, S., & Sweller, J. (2010). The use of illustrations when learning to read: A cognitive load theory approach. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 659–672.https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1577
Willows, D. M. (1978). A picture is not always worth a thousand words: Pictures as distractors in reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70(2), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.70.2.255
*Wu, H. M., & Solman, R. T. (1993). Effective use of pictures as extra stimulus prompts. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 63(1), 144–160.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1993.tb01047.x
*Zhang, Q., & Elliott, R. T. (1998). Interference of sentence and picture contexts on learning prepositions. Journal of Behavioral Education, 8, 439–456.https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022805316027
Funding
The current project was supported in part by a Student Research Grant awarded by the North Carolina Association for Behavior Analysis to the first author.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing Interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Kennedy, T., Cariveau, T. Picture-Text Compounds in Early Reading: A Descriptive Review. Behav. Soc. Iss. (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-023-00139-0
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42822-023-00139-0