Abstract
Malignancies of the oral cavity are common all over the world as well as in India. It has been estimated that, on an average, 70–80% of oral cancers are caused by excessive chewing of betel nut and areca nut and smoking. The cancers arise from various pre-existing potentially malignant lesions and conditions, which are aggravated by various pathogenic oral microbiome. The existing literature credits microbial dysbiosis as one of the key factors behind a number of oral diseases. Interaction between oral epithelial cells and microbes endows oral cells with the capability of undergoing invasion and metastasis. This microbial interference to the transformed epithelial cells promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Epithelial-mesenchymal transition is a physiological process which allows polarized epithelial cells to mimic mesenchymal phenotype through various biochemical and molecular changes. Epithelial cell interacts with basal membrane via basal cells. EMT induces the invasiveness of these cells leading to metastasis, resistance to apoptosis, and increased production of extracellular matrix components. They degrade the basement membrane and form mesenchymal-like cells that migrate away from the epithelial layer. Microbial intervention causes downregulation of important epithelial markers like E-cadherin and β-catenin along with upregulation of mesenchymal markers, such as N-cadherin, vimentin, and fibronectin. The current review tries to discuss the role of oral microbiota in hastening the process of EMT and the possible mechanisms involved in it.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lip, oral cavity: Globocan 2018 [Internet]. The Global Cancer Observatory, WHO. 2019. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today/data/factsheets/cancers/1-Lip-oral-cavity-fact-sheet.pdf
International Agency for research on cancer. Lip and oral cavity cancer statistics in India: GLOBOCAN 2018 [Internet]. WHO. 2019. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today/data/factsheets/populations/356-india-fact-sheets.pdf
Beynon RA, Lang S, Schimansky S, Penfold CM, Waylen A, Thomas SJ, et al. Tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking at diagnosis of head and neck cancer and all-cause mortality: results from head and neck 5000, a prospective observational cohort of people with head and neck cancer. Int J Cancer. 2018;143(5):1114–27.
Lafauri GI, Perdomo SJ, Buenahora MR. Human papilloma virus: an etiological and prognostic factor for oral cancer? J Investig Clin Dent. 2018;9:e12313.
Al-Hebshi NN, Borgnakke WS, Johnson NW. The microbiome of oral squamous cell carcinomas: a functional perspective. Curr Oral Health Rep. 2019;6:145–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40496-019-0215-5.
Awadallah M, Idle M, Patel K, et al. Management update of potentially premalignant oral epithelial lesions. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2018;125:628–36 https://www.oooojournal.net/article/S2212-4403(18)30848-4/pdf.
Lamont RJ, Koo H, Hajishengallis G. The oral microbiota: dynamic communities and host interactions. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2018 December;16(12):745–59. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-018-0089-x.
Gao L, Xu T, Huang G, Jiang S, Gu Y, Chen F. Oral microbiomes: more and more importance in oral cavity and whole body. Protein Cell. 2018;9(5):488–500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13238-018-0548-1.
Dewhirst FE, Chen T, Izard J, Paster BJ, Tanner ACR, Yu WH, et al. The human oral microbiome. J Bacteriol. 2010;
Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE. Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43(11):5721–32.
Do T, Devine D, Marsh PD. Oral biofilms: molecular analysis, challenges, and future prospects in dental diagnostics. Clin Cosmet Investig Dent. 2013;5:11–9.
Zarco MF, Vess TJ, Ginsburg GS. The oral microbiome in health and disease and the potential impact on personalized dental medicine. Oral Dis. 2012;18(2):109–20.
Chen T, Yu W-H, Izard J, Baranova OV, Lakshmanan A, Dewhirst FE. The Human Oral Microbiome Database: a web accessible resource for investigating oral microbe taxonomic and genomic information. Database (Oxford). 2010;2010:baq013.
Mäkinen A, Nawaz A, Mäkitie A, Meurman JH. Role of non-albicans Candida and Candida albicans in oral squamous cell cancer patients. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2018;76(12):2564–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2018.06.012.
Wang X, Du L, You J, King JB, Cichewicz RH. Fungal biofilm inhibitors from a human oral microbiome-derived bacterium. Org Biomol Chem. 2012;10(10):2044–50. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ob06856g.
Wang J, Gao Y, Zhao F. Phage-bacteria interaction network in human oral microbiome. Environ Microbiol. 2016;18(7):2143–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.12923.
Willis JR, Gabaldón T. The human oral microbiome in health and disease: from sequences to ecosystems. Microorganisms. 2020;8(2):308. Published 2020 Feb 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8020308.
Mager DL, Ximenez-Fyvie LA, Haffajee AD, Socransky SS. Distribution of selected bacterial species on intraoral surfaces. J Clin Periodontol. 2003;30(7):644–54. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-051x.2003.00376.x.
Takahashi N. Microbial ecosystem in the oral cavity: metabolic diversity in an ecological niche and its relationship with oral diseases. Int Congr Ser. 2005;1284:103–12.
Valm AM. The structure of dental plaque microbial communities in the transition from health to dental caries and periodontal disease. J Mol Biol. 2019;431(16):2957–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2019.05.016.
Costalonga M, Herzberg MC. The oral microbiome and the immunobiology of periodontal disease and caries. Immunol Lett. 2014;162(2PtA):22–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imlet.2014.08.017.
Mager D, Haffajee A, Devlin P, Norris C, Posner M, Goodson J. The salivary microbiota as a diagnostic indicator of oral cancer: a descriptive, non-randomized study of cancer-free and oral squamous cell carcinoma subjects oral squamous cell carcinoma oral mucosabacterial markers bacteria early detection. J Transl Med. 2005;3:27.
Verma D, Garg PK, Dubey AK. Insights into the human oral microbiome. Arch Microbiol. 2018;200(4):525–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00203-018-1505-3.
Rusthen S, Kristoffersen AK, Young A, et al. Dysbiotic salivary microbiota in dry mouth and primary Sjögren’s syndrome patients. PLoS One. 2019;14(6):e0218319. Published 2019 Jun 18. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218319.
He J, Li Y, Cao Y, Xue J, Zhou X. The oral microbiome diversity and its relation to human diseases. Folia Microbiol (Praha). 2015;60(1):69–80.
Kazor CE, Mitchell PM, Lee AM, Stokes LN, Loesche WJ, Dewhirst FE, et al. Diversity of bacterial populations on the tongue dorsa of patients with halitosis and healthy patients. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(2):558–63.
Marsh PD. Dental plaque as a biofilm and a microbial community - implications for health and disease. BMC Oral Health. 2006;6(SUPPL. 1):1–7.
Keijser BJ, Zaura E, Huse SM, et al. Pyrosequencing analysis of the oral microflora of healthy adults. J Dent Res. 2008;87(11):1016–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/154405910808701104.
Paster BJ, Boches SK, Galvin JL, Ericson RE, Lau CN, Levanos VA, et al. Bacterial diversity in human subgingival plaque. J Bacteriol. 2001;183(12):3770–83.
Nelson-filho P, Borba IG, De KSF, Assed R, Silva B, De Queiroz AM. Dynamics of microbial colonization of the oral cavity in newborns. Braz Dent J. 24(42013):415–9.
Merglova V, Polenik P. Early colonization of the oral cavity in 6- and 12-month-old infants by cariogenic and periodontal pathogens: a case-control study. Folia Microbiol (Praha). 2016;61(5):423–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12223-016-0453-z.//.
Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE. Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43(11):5721–32. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.43.11.5721-5732.2005.
Li J, Helmerhorst EJ, Leone CW, et al. Identification of early microbial colonizers in human dental biofilm. J Appl Microbiol. 2004;97(6):1311–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2004.02420.x.
Parahitiyawa NB, Scully C, Leung WK, Yam WC, Jin LJ, Samaranayake LP. Exploring the oral bacterial flora: current status and future directions. Oral Dis. 2010;16(2):136–45.
Darveau RP. Periodontitis: a polymicrobial disruption of host homeostasis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010;8(7):481–90 Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20514045.
Takahashi N, Nyvad B. The role of bacteria in the caries process: ecological perspectives. J Dent Res. 2011;90(3):294–303.
Kolenbrander PE, Palmer RJ, Periasamy S, Jakubovics NS. Oral multispecies biofilm development and the key role of cell-cell distance. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010;8(7):471–80. Available from. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2381.
Naginyte M, Do T, Meade J, et al. Enrichment of periodontal pathogens from the biofilms of healthy adults. Sci Rep. 2019;9:5491. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41,882-y.
Al-hebshi NN, Al-Alimi A, Taiyeb-Ali T, Jaafar N. Quantitative analysis of classical and new putative periodontal pathogens in subgingival biofilm: a case-control study. J Periodontal Res. 2015;50(3):320–9.
Shaw L, Harjunmaa U, Doyle R, et al. Distinguishing the signals of gingivitis and periodontitis in supragingival plaque: a cross-sectional cohort study in Malawi. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2016;82(19):6057–67. Published 2016 Sep 16. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01756-16.
Hajishengallis G, Liang S, Payne MA, Hashim A, Jotwani R, Eskan MA, et al. Low-abundance biofilm species orchestrates inflammatory periodontal disease through the commensal microbiota and complement. Cell Host Microbe [Internet]. 2011;10(5):497–506. Available from. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2011.10.006.
Zaura E, Keijser BJ, Huse SM, Crielaard W. Defining the healthy “core microbiome” of oral microbial communities. BMC Microbiol [Internet]. 2009;9(1):259 Available from: http://bmcmicrobiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2180-9-259.
Hajishengallis G, Darveau R, Curtis M. The keystone pathogen hypothesis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2012;10(10):717–25.
Hajishengallis G, Moutsopoulos NM, Hajishengallis E, Chavakis T. Immune and regulatory functions of neutrophils in inflammatory bone loss. Semin Immunol. 2016;28(2):146–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smim.2016.02.002.
Nih T, Working HMP. The NIH Human Microbiome Project. Genome Res [Internet]. 2009;19(12):2317–23 Available from: http://genome.cshlp.org/content/19/12/2317.full.pdf+html.
Huyghe A, Francois P, Charbonnier Y, Tangomo-Bento M, Bonetti EJ, Paster BJ, et al. Novel microarray design strategy to study complex bacterial communities. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008;74(6):1876–85.
Nagy KN, Sonkodi I, Szöke I, Nagy E, Newman HN. The microflora associated with human oral carcinomas. Oral Oncol. 1998;34(4):304–8.
Katz J, Onate MD, Pauley KM, Bhattacharyya I, Cha S. Presence of Porphyromonas gingivalis in gingival squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Oral Sci Int J Oral Sci [Internet]. 2011;3(3):209–15 Available from: www.ijos.org.cn.
Sasaki M, Yamaura C, Ohara-Nemoto Y, Tajika S, Kodama Y, Ohya T, et al. Streptococcus anginosus infection in oral cancer and its infection route. Oral Dis. 2005;11(3):151–6.
Morita E, Narikiyo M, Yano A, Nishimura E, Igaki H, Sasaki H, et al. Different frequencies of Streptococcus anginosus infection in oral cancer and esophageal cancer. Cancer Sci. 2003;94(6):492–6.
Xie H, Rhodus NL, Griffin RJ, Carlis JV, Griffin TJ. A catalog of human saliva proteins identified by free flow electrophoresis-based peptide separation and tandem mass spectrometry. Mol Cell Proteomics [Internet]. 2005;4(11):1826–30 Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16103422.
Hooper SJ, Crean SJ, Lewis MAO, Spratt DA, Wade WG, Wilson MJ. Viable bacteria present within oral squamous cell carcinoma tissue. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44(5):1719–25.
Hooper SJ, Crean S, Fardy MJ, Lewis MAO, Spratt DA, Wade WG, et al. A molecular analysis of the bacteria present within oral squamous cell carcinoma Printed in Great Britain. J Med Microbiol. 2007;56(Pt 12):1651–9.
Pushalkar S, Ji X, Li Y, Estilo C, Yegnanarayana R, Singh B. Comparison of oral microbiota in tumor and non-tumor tissues of patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma. BMC Microbiol [Internet]. 2012;12(1):1. Available from: BMC Microbiology.
Fouad AF. Pyrosequencing as a tool for better understanding of human microbiomes. J Oral Microbiol. 2012;4:2297.
Pushalkar S, Mane SP, Ji X, et al. Microbial diversity in saliva of oral squamous cell carcinoma. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2011;61(3):269–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-695X.2010.00773.x.
Nayfach S, Rodriguez-Mueller B, Garud N, Pollard KS. An integrated metagenomics pipeline for strain profiling reveals novel patterns of bacterial transmission and biogeography. Genome Res. 2016;26(11):1612–25. https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.201863.115.
Sato N, Kakuta M, Hasegawa T, et al. Metagenomic analysis of bacterial species in tongue microbiome of current and never smokers. npj Biofilms Microbiomes. 2020;6:11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41522-020-0121-6.
Cyprian FS, Al-Antary N, Al Moustafa AE. HER-2/Epstein-Barr virus crosstalk in human gastric carcinogenesis: a novel concept of oncogene/oncovirus interaction. Cell Adhes Migr. 2018;12(1):1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/19336918.2017.1330244.
Jeon YK, Lee BY, Kim JE, Lee SS, Kim CW. Molecular characterization of Epstein-Barr virus and oncoprotein expression in nasopharyngeal carcinoma in Korea. Head Neck. 2004;26(7):573–83. https://doi.org/10.1002/hed.10370.
Tsai CL, Li HP, Lu YJ, et al. Activation of DNA methyltransferase 1 by EBV LMP1 Involves c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase signaling. Cancer Res. 2006;66(24):11668–11,676. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-2194.
Shair KH, Schnegg CI, Raab-Traub N. Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein-1 effects on junctional plakoglobin and induction of a cadherin switch. Cancer Res. 2009;69(14):5734–42. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-09-0468.
Lim Y, et al. Oral microbiome: a new biomarker reservoir for oral and oropharyngeal cancers. Theranostics. 2017;7(174):313–4321. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.21804.
Karpiński TM. Role of oral microbiota in cancer development. Microorganisms. 2019;7(1):20. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7010020.
Hussain SP, Hofseth LJ, Harris CC. Radical causes of cancer. Nat Rev Cancer. 2003;3(4):276–85. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc1046.
Gobert AP, Wilson KT. Human and Helicobacter pylori interactions determine the outcome of gastric diseases. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2017;400:27–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50,520-6_2.
Abranches J, Zeng L, Kajfasz JK, et al. Biology of oral streptococci. Microbiol Spectr. 2018;6(5):https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.GPP3-0042-2018.
Carbonero F, Benefiel AC, Alizadeh-Ghamsari AH, Gaskins HR. Microbial pathways in colonic sulfur metabolism and links with health and disease. Front Physiol. 2012;3:448. Published 2012 Nov 28. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2012.00448.
Bhatt AP, Redinbo MR, Bultman SJ. The role of the microbiome in cancer development and therapy. CA Cancer J Clin. 2017;67(4):326–44. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21398.
Senneby A, Davies J, Svensäter G, et al. Acid tolerance properties of dental biofilms in vivo. BMC Microbiol. 2017;17:165. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-017-1074-7.
Downes J, Wade WG. Peptostreptococcus stomatis sp. nov., isolated from the human oral cavity. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2006;56(Pt 4):751–4. https://doi.org/10.1099/ijs.0.64041-0.
Lunt SJ, Chaudary N, Hill RP. The tumor microenvironment and metastatic disease. Clin Exp Metastasis. 2009;26(1):19–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10585-008-9182-2.
Franco R, Schoneveld O, Georgakilas AG, Panayiotidis MI. Oxidative stress, DNA methylation and carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett. 2008;266(1):6–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2008.02.026.
Yost S, Stashenko P, Choi Y, Kukuruzinska M, Genco CA, Salama A, et al. Increased virulence of the oral microbiome in oral squamous cell carcinoma revealed by metatranscriptome analyses. Int J Oral Sci. 2018;10:32.
Pavlova SI, Jin L, Gasparovich SR, Tao L. Multiple alcohol dehydrogenases but no functional acetaldehyde dehydrogenase causing excessive acetaldehyde production from ethanol by oral streptococci. Microbiology. 2013;159(159Pt 7):1437–46.
Marttila E, Bowyer P, Sanglard D, Uittamo J, Kaihovaara P, Salaspuro M, et al. Fermentative 2-carbon metabolism produces carcinogenic levels of acetaldehyde in Candida albicans. Mol Oral Microbiol. 2013;28:281–91.
Meurman JH. Oral microbiota and cancer. J Oral Microbiol. 2010;2:https://doi.org/10.3402/jom.v2i0.5195
Chocolatewala N, Chaturvedi P, Desale R. The role of bacteria in oral cancer. Indian J Med Paediatr Oncol. 2010;31(4):126–31. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-5851.76195.
Homann N, Tillonen J, Meurman JH, et al. Increased salivary acetaldehyde levels in heavy drinkers and smokers: a microbiological approach to oral cavity cancer. Carcinogenesis. 2000;21(4):663–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/21.4.663.
Zhang Y, Weinberg RA. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in cancer: complexity and opportunities. Front Med. 2018;12(4):361–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11684-018-0656-6.
Dongre A, Weinberg RA. New insights into the mechanisms of epithelial-mesenchymal transition and implications for cancer. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2019;20(2):69–84. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-018-0080-4.
Kalluri R, Weinberg RA. The basics of epithelial-mesenchymal transition [published correction appears in J Clin Invest. 2010 May 3;120(5):1786]. J Clin Invest. 2009;119(6):1420–8. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI39104.
Vergara D, Simeone P, Damato M, Maffia M, Lanuti P, Trerotola M. The cancer microbiota: EMT and inflammation as shared molecular mechanisms associated with plasticity and progression. J Oncol. 2019;2019:1253727. Published 2019 Oct 20. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/1253727.
Inaba H, Sugita H, Kuboniwa M, et al. Porphyromonas gingivalis promotes invasion of oral squamous cell carcinoma through induction of proMMP9 and its activation. Cell Microbiol. 2014;16(1):131–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/cmi.12211.
Olsen I, Yilmaz Ö. Possible role of Porphyromonas gingivalis in orodigestive cancers. J Oral Microbiol. 2019;11(1):1563410. Published 2019 Jan 9. https://doi.org/10.1080/20002297.2018.1563410.
Lee J, Roberts JS, Atanasova KR, Chowdhury N, Han K, Yilmaz Ö. Human primary epithelial cells acquire an epithelial-mesenchymal-transition phenotype during long-term infection by the oral opportunistic pathogen, Porphyromonas gingivalis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2017;7:493. Published 2017 Dec 1. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2017.00493.
Jotwani R, Eswaran SVK, Moonga S, Cutler CW. MMP-9/TIMP-1 Imbalance induced in human dendritic cells by Porphyromonas gingivalis. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2015;58(5):213–23.
Zeituni AE, Jotwani R, Carrion J, Cutler CW. Targeting of DC-SIGN on human dendritic cells by minor fimbriated Porphyromonas gingivalis strains elicits a distinct effector T cell response. J Immunol. 2009;183(9):5694–704.
Takahashi Y, Davey M, Yumoto H, Iii FCG, Genco CA. Fimbria-dependent activation of pro-inflammatory molecules in Porphyromonas gingivalis infected human aortic endothelial cells. Cell Microbiol. 2006;8(December 2005):738–57.
Uitto V, Baillie D, Wu Q, Gendron R, Grenier D, Putnins EE, et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum increases collagenase 3 production and migration of epithelial cells. Infect Immun. 2005;73(2):1171–9.
Abassi YA, Rehn M, Ekman N, Alitalo K, Vuori K, YNC B. p130 Cas couples the tyrosine kinase Bmx/Etk with regulation of the actin cytoskeleton and cell migration. J Biol Chem. 2003;278(37):35636–43.
Chau C, Chen K, Deng H, et al. Coordinating Etk/Bmx activation and VEGF upregulation to promote cell survival and proliferation. Oncogene. 2002;21:8817–29. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1206032.
Fukata Y, Oshiro N, Kinoshita N, et al. Phosphorylation of adducin by Rho-kinase plays a crucial role in cell motility. J Cell Biol. 1999;145(2):347–61. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.145.2.347.
Frödin M, Gammeltoft S. Role and regulation of 90 kDa ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK) in signal transduction. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 1999;151(1–2):65–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0303-7207(99)00061-1.
Gur C, Ibrahim Y, Isaacson B, et al. Binding of the Fap2 protein of Fusobacterium nucleatum to human inhibitory receptor TIGIT protects tumors from immune cell attack. Immunity. 2015;42(2):344–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2015.01.010.
Rubinstein MR, Wang X, Liu W, Hao Y, Cai G, Han YW. Fusobacterium nucleatum promotes colorectal carcinogenesis by modulating E-cadherin/β-catenin signaling via its FadA adhesin. Cell Host Microbe. 2013;14(2):195–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2013.07.012.
Chatterjee S, Do Kang S, Alam S, et al. Tissue-specific gene expression during productive human papillomavirus 16 infection of cervical, foreskin, and tonsil epithelium. J Virol. 2019;93(17):e00915–9. Published 2019 Aug 13. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00915-19.
Chen X, Bode AM, Dong Z, Cao Y. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is regulated by oncoviruses in cancer. FASEB J. 2016;30(9):3001–10.
Moustafa AE. Al. E5 and e6/e7 of high-risk HPVs cooperate to enhance cancer progression through EMT initiation. Cell Adhes Migr. 2015;9(5):392–3.
Al Moustafa AE, Al-Antary N, Aboulkassim T, Akil N, Batist G, Yasmeen A. Co-prevalence of Epstein–Barr virus and high-risk human papillomaviruses in Syrian women with breast cancer. Hum Vaccines Immunother. 2016;12(7):1936–9.
Broccolo F, Ciccarese G, Rossi A, Anselmi L, Drago F, Toniolo A. Human papillomavirus (HPV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in keratinizing versus non- keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharynx. Infect Agent Cancer. 2018;13:32. Published 2018 Nov 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13027-018-0205-6.
McLaughlin-Drubin ME, Munger K. Viruses associated with human cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol basis Dis. 2008;1782(3):127–50.
Tommasino M. The human papillomavirus family and its role in carcinogenesis. Semin Cancer Biol. 2014;26:13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcancer.2013.11.002.
Kobayashi K, Hisamatsu K, Suzui N, Hara A, Tomita H, Miyazaki T. A review of HPV-related head and neck cancer. J Clin Med. 2018;7(9):241. Published 2018 Aug 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm7090241.
Doorbar J, Quint W, Banks L, Bravo IG, Stoler M, Broker TR, et al. The biology and life-cycle of human papillomaviruses. Vaccine [Internet]. 2012;30:F55–70. Available from. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.06.083.
Howie HL, Katzenellenbogen RA, Galloway DA. Papillomavirus E6 proteins. Virology. 2009;384(2):324–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2008.11.017.
Mclaughlin-drubin ME, Münger K. The human papillomavirus E7 oncoprotein margaret. Virol 2009. 2010;384(2):335–44.
Suprynowicz FA, Disbrow GL, Krawczyk E, Simic V, Lantzky K, Schlegel R. HPV-16 E5 oncoprotein upregulates lipid raft components caveolin-1 and ganglioside GM1 at the plasma membrane of cervical cells [published correction appears in Oncogene. 2008 Nov 6;27(49):6396]. Oncogene. 2008;27(8):1071–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1210725.
Kim SH, Juhnn YS, Kang S, et al. Human papillomavirus 16 E5 up-regulates the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor through the activation of epidermal growth factor receptor, MEK/ ERK1,2 and PI3K/Akt. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2006;63(7–8):930–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-005-5561-x.
Oh JM, Kim SH, Cho EA, Song YS, Kim WH, Juhnn YS. Human papillomavirus type 16 E5 protein inhibits hydrogen-peroxide-induced apoptosis by stimulating ubiquitin-proteasome-mediated degradation of Bax in human cervical cancer cells. Carcinogenesis. 2010;31(3):402–10. https://doi.org/10.1093/carcin/bgp318.
Ghittoni R, Accardi R, Hasan U, Gheit T, Sylla B, Tommasino M. The biological properties of E6 and E7 oncoproteins from human papillomaviruses. Virus Genes. 2010;40(1):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11262-009-0412-8.
Doorbar J. The papillomavirus life cycle. J Clin Virol. 2005;32(Suppl 1):S7–S15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2004.12.006.
Magal SS, Jackman A, Ish-Shalom S, et al. Downregulation of Bax mRNA expression and protein stability by the E6 protein of human papillomavirus 16. J Gen Virol. 2005;86(Pt 3):611–21. https://doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.80453-0.
Thomas M, Laura R, Hepner K, et al. Oncogenic human papillomavirus E6 proteins target the MAGI-2 and MAGI-3 proteins for degradation. Oncogene. 2002;21(33):5088–96. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1205668.
Nguyen MM, Nguyen ML, Caruana G, Bernstein A, Lambert PF, Griep AE. Requirement of PDZ-containing proteins for cell cycle regulation and differentiation in the mouse lens epithelium. Mol Cell Biol. 2003;23(24):8970–81. https://doi.org/10.1128/mcb.23.24.8970-8981.2003.
Hashimoto T, Soeno Y, Maeda G, et al. Progression of oral squamous cell carcinoma accompanied with reduced E-cadherin expression but not cadherin switch. PLoS One. 2012;7(10):e47899. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047899.
Faghihloo E, Sadeghizadeh M, Shahmahmoodi S, et al. Cdc6 expression is induced by HPV16 E6 and E7 oncogenes and represses E-cadherin expression. Cancer Gene Ther. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1038/cgt.2016.51.
Zhang J, Burn C, Young K, et al. Microparticles produced by human papillomavirus type 16 E7-expressing cells impair antigen presenting cell function and the cytotoxic T cell response. Sci Rep. 2018;8:2373. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-20,779-2.
Jung YS, Kato I, Kim HR. A novel function of HPV16-E6/E7 in epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2013 Jun;435(3):339–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.04.060.
Ayee R, Ofori MEO, Wright E, Quaye O. Epstein Barr virus associated lymphomas and epithelia cancers in humans. J Cancer. 2020;11(7):1737–50. Published 2020 Jan 17. https://doi.org/10.7150/jca.37282.
Hau PM, Lung HL, Wu M, Tsang CM, Wong K-L. Mak NK and Lo KW (2020) Targeting Epstein-Barr virus in nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Front Oncol. 2020;10:600. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2020.00600.
Münz C, Moormann A. Immune escape by Epstein-Barr virus associated malignancies. Semin Cancer Biol. 2008;18(6):381–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcancer.2008.10.002.
Middeldorp JM, Brink AATP, Adriaan JC, Brule D, Meijer CJLM. Pathogenic roles for Epstein Á Barr virus (EBV) gene products in EBV-associated proliferative disorders. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2003;45(1):1–36.
Young LS, Rickinson AB. Epstein-Barr virus: 40 years on. Nat Rev Cancer. 2004;4(10):757–68. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc1452.
Michelow P, Wright C, Pantanowitz L. A review of the cytomorphology of Epstein-Barr virus-associated malignancies. Acta Cytol. 2012;56(1):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1159/000334235.
Amarante MK, Watanabe MA. The possible involvement of virus in breast cancer. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2009;135(3):329–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00432-008-0511-2.
Dawson CW, Port RJ, Young LS. The role of the EBV-encoded latent membrane proteins LMP1 and LMP2 in the pathogenesis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). Semin Cancer Biol [Internet]. 2012;22(2):144–53. Available from. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcancer.2012.01.004.
Horikawa T, Yoshizaki T, Kondo S, Furukawa M, Kaizaki Y, Pagano JS. Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 1 induces Snail and epithelial – mesenchymal transition in metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Br J Cancer [Internet]. 2011;104(7):1160–7. Available from. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjc.2011.38.
Kong QL, Hu LJ, Cao JY, et al. Epstein-Barr virus-encoded LMP2A induces an epithelial-mesenchymal transition and increases the number of side population stem-like cancer cells in nasopharyngeal carcinoma. PLoS Pathog. 2010;6(6):e1000940. Published 2010 Jun 3. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000940.
Lin Z, Wan X, Jiang R, et al. Epstein-Barr virus-encoded latent membrane protein 2A promotes the epithelial-mesenchymal transition in nasopharyngeal carcinoma via metastatic tumor antigen 1 and mechanistic target of rapamycin signaling induction. J Virol. 2014;88(20):11872–11,885. https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.01867-14.
Wang L, Tian WD, Xu X, et al. Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) protein induction of epithelial-mesenchymal transition in nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells. Cancer. 2014;120(3):363–72. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.28418.
Pushalkar S, Ji X, Li Y, Estilo C, Yegnanarayana R, Singh B. Comparison of oral microbiota in tumor and non-tumor tissues of patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma. BMC Microbiol. 2012;12(1):1.
Belstrøm D, Holmstrup P, Fiehn N-E, Kirkby N, Kokaras A, Paster BJ, et al. Salivary microbiota in individuals with different levels of caries experience. J Oral Microbiol ISSNOnline J J Oral Microbiol [Internet]. 2017;9(1):2000–297 Available from: http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=zjom20.
AlmståhI A, Wikström M, Stenberg I, Jakobsson A, Fagerberg-Mohlin B. Oral microbiota associated with hyposalivation of different origins. Oral Microbiol Immunol. 2003;18(1):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-302x.2003.180101.x.
Lundmark A, Hu YOO, Huss M, Johannsen G, Andersson AF, Yucel-Lindberg T. Identification of salivary microbiota and its association with host inflammatory mediators in periodontitis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2019;9:216. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2019.00216.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the general institutional internal funding (Seed 2578) and the facilities provided for the study by VIT, Vellore.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
S.C. and R.K.D. conceived the presented idea. S.C. collected the data and prepared the manuscript. R.K.D. reviewed the manuscript, validated the collected data, and supervised the study. S.C. and R.K.D. edited the manuscript. All authors discussed the data and contributed to the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval and Informed Consent
This section is not applicable for this manuscript, as this is a review article.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This article is part of the Topical Collection on Medicine
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Chakraborti, S., Das, R.K. Dysbiosis of Oral Microbiota and Its Effect on Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition: a Review. SN Compr. Clin. Med. 2, 2324–2335 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42399-020-00573-w
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42399-020-00573-w