Abstract
In this study, four ancient lime plaster production technology and their properties in different periods were investigated to evaluate their compatibility with modern conservation applications. Mayans, Egyptians, Persians and Asian civilization started their early developments based on the regional availability of raw materials for early advancements. Mayans 300–900 CE experimented with binder/aggregate ratio between (1:2–1:6) and (6:3–3:6) resulting in dolomitic/air lime:sand at Calakmul and Lamanai locations. Egyptian plasters1400–1200 BC came up with (3:6) proportions composed of crude gypsum and volcanic ash: sand and sea sand at the Egyptian tomb and Giza's pyramid. Persian plasters in 1250 BC experimented with sarooj plasters with kankar at (1:2:1) and (3:3–6) (lime:sascab:kankar). Asian plasters adopted the ratio between (1:3–6 and 2:3) during the Harappan and Mohenjo-Daro periods 3300–1300 BC. Ancient plasters were incorporated with organic extracts during slaking of lime to modify their durability and mechanical property specifically. Further from the overall study, the percentage selection of water/binder ratio ranges between (0.5–1.2%) by the total volume of lime with organic additives ranging between (5–8%) by weight among the four-lime plaster production technology. This study brings back prehistoric lime plaster production technology to preserve the modern historic tangible and intangible structures.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All the data were obtained from the experiments and research work conducted by the authors.
References
Alejandra, J., Pérez, V., Mercedes, E., Guzmán, A., Molina, W. M., García, L. C., & Sánchez, M. (2015). Influence of inorganic and organic additives on spectrophotometry of lime mortars. Ge-conservación, 11, 9.
Allahverdi, A., & Salem, S. (2010). Simultaneous influences of micro-silica and limestone powder on properties of Portland cement paste. Ceramics-Silikaty, 54(1), 65–71.
Alonso, M. I. V. (2009). Lowland Maya lime plaster technology: A diachronic approach. Doctoral dissertation. University of London.
Ashford, D., & Neuberger, A. (1980). 4-Hydroxyl-l-proline in plant glycoproteins: Where does it come from and what is it doing there? Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 5(9), 245–248.
Bradley, R., Meredith, P., Smith, J., & Edmonds, M. (1992). Rock physics and the Neolithic axe trade in Great Britain. Archaeometry, 34(2), 223–233.
Carran, D., Hughes, J., Leslie, A., & Kennedy, C. (2012). A short history of the use of lime as a building material beyond Europe and North America. International Journal of Architectural Heritage., 6(2), 117–146.
Chandra, S., & Aavik, J. (1987). Influence of proteins on some properties of Portland cement mortar. International Journal of Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete, 9(2), 91–94.
Cowan, H. J. (1977). The master builders. A history of structural and environmental design from ancient Egypt to the nineteenth century.
Cowper, A. D. (1998). Special report no. 9, lime and lime mortars. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, His Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, 1927, reprinted by Donhead.
Espinosa, L. C. (1996). Limestone rocks of the Yucatan Peninsula. Description of the lithology and physical properties based on the results of exploration. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences and Geomechanics Abstracts, 35(4), 410–411.
Espinosa, L., Ceron, M., & Sulub, Y. A. (1998). Limestone rocks of the Yucatan peninsula. Description of the lithology and physical properties based on the results of exploration, investigation and laboratory tests. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 4(35), 410–1. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-9062(98)00147-8
Ghosh, A. (1990). An encyclopedia of Indian Archaeology (Illustrated edn.: BRILL) 413
Gourdin, W. H., & Kingery, W. D. (1975). The beginnings of pyrotechnology: Neolithic and Egyptian lime plaster. Journal of Field Archaeology, 2(1–2), 133–150. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00003943
Grattan-Bellew, P. E., Mitchell, L. D., Margeson, J., & Min, D. (2010). Is alkali–carbonate reaction just a variant of alkali–silica reaction ACR= ASR? Cement and Concrete Research, 40(4), 556–562.
Guilders 400 set. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 55(3), 570–571.
Gunn, J. D., Foss, J. E., Folan, W. J., Carrasco, M. D. R. D., & Faust, B. B. (2002). Bajo sediments and the hydraulic system of Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico. Ancient Mesoamerica, 13(2), 297–315.
Hicky Morgan, M. (1914). Vitruvius: The ten books on architecture. Harvard University Press.
Kardavani, H. (1995). Ziggurat Chogha Zanbil, role of the lime cycle in historic buildings” history consideration journal, 11th issue, P52, 1970.Kent. R. Building Engineering, 70, 1–2.
Kent, R. (1995). Role of the lime cycle in historic buildings. Building Engineer, 70(8), 24–25.
Kockaert, L., Gausset, P., Dubi-Rucquoy, M. (1988). “Detection of ovalbumin in paint media by immunofluorescence”, Studies in Conservation, Vol. 34, No. 4: 183–188.Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries 4th ed. rev. and enlarged by J. R. Harris (Edward Arnold Ltd. 1962) 78.
Littmann, E. R. (1957). Ancient Mesoamerican mortars, plasters, and stuccos: Comalcalco, part I. American Antiquity, 23(2Part1), 135–140.
Lucas, A., Harris, J. R. (1962). Ancient Egyptian materials and industries... Revised and enlarged by JR Harris. Edward Arnold. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0079497X00015528
Lucas, A. (1948). Ancient Egyptian materials and industries (3rd ed.). Edward Arnold & Co.
Maria I. (2001). Lowland Maya lime plaster technology: a diachronic approach, Ph.D. Thesis submitted, Institute of Archeology, University College, London.
Masoumi, M. M., Banakar, H., & Boroomand, B. (2015). Review of an ancient Persian lime mortar †œSAROOJâ€. Malaysian Journal of Civil Engineering, 27(1), 53.
Michalowski., Ritchie, T. (1995). Study of efflorescence produced on ceramic wicks by masonry mortars. Journal of American Ceramics Society, 38, 326–366.
Moropoulou, A., Bakolas, A., & Bisbikou, K. (1995). Characterization of ancient, byzantine and later historic mortars by thermal and X-ray diffraction techniques. Thermochimica Acta, 269, 779–795.
Neuberger, A. (1980). Hydroxyl proline in plants glycoproteins where does it come from and what is it doing there. Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 5(9), 245–248.
Rawat, N. S., & Prakash, S. (1961). Chemical study of ancient plasters found at Kausambi. Vijnana Parishad Anusandhan Patrika, 4, 23–30.
Sayre, E. V. (1976). Deterioration and restoration of plaster, concrete and mortar. In Preservation and conservation: principles and practices: proceedings of the North American International Regional Conference (pp. 191–201).
Singh, M. (1993). Analysis and characterization of Charminar lime plaster. Current Science, 64, 760–764.
Singh, M., Jain, K. K., & Singh, T. (1990). Some studies on the suitability of lime mortars based on ancient Indian formulations for restoration purposes. In Superfici dell'architettura: le finiture. Atti del convegno di studi, Bressanone, 26–29 giugno 1990. A cura di Guido Biscontin e Stefano Volpin (pp. 151–158).
Tubb, K. W. (1962). Conservation of the lime plaster statues of'Ain Ghazal. In Black J. (ed), Recent advances in the conservation and analysis of artifacts. Jubilee conservation conference, London 6–10 July 1987 (pp. 387–392).
Vafeghi, M., Movahed zade, M., Khaheh, A. (2012).“Evaluation of the compressive strength for some kinds of Sarooj mortars in Bushehr province” (Persian language), 4th national conference on concrete, Tehran, Iran.
Velázquez, S., Monzó, J. M., Borrachero, M. V., & Payá, J. (2014). Assessment of the pozzolanic activity of a spent catalyst by conductivity measurement of aqueous suspensions with calcium hydroxide. Materials, 7(4), 2561–2576.
Ventolà, L., Vendrell, M., & Giraldez, P. (2013). Newly-designed traditional lime mortar with a phase change material as an additive. Construction and Building Materials, 47, 1210–1216.
Vitruvius, & Warren, H. L. (1960). The ten books on architecture. Dover Publications.
Acknowledgements
I thank my guide Dr S Thirumalini, for the guidance, and the organization VIT, Vellore.
Funding
No funding was awarded to this article.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
SK collected the idea and documented the review article. TS reviewed the article and also guided the scientific data corrections.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding authors state no conflict of interest. The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Shiva Kumar, M., Selvaraj, T. Ancient organic lime plaster production technology and its properties among Mayan, Egyptian, Persian and Asian civilizations. Asian J Civ Eng 24, 2709–2718 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-023-00653-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-023-00653-x