Abstract
Objectives
There are a significant number of reports documenting movement differences and disorders in individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Observations of throwing patterns of young adults with low-expressive language ASD (LEL-ASD) have not been previously reported and may offer a description of how aberrant movement patterns manifest among this older population.
Methods
Throwing patterns over four distances (1.52, 3.04, 4.56, and 6.08m) were compared between young adults with LEL-ASD (n=7, 18.9 ± 1.8 years) and a matched control group (n=7, 19.6 ± 0.5 years). Eleven reflective markers were adhered to specific anatomical locations on participants and a six-camera motion analysis system (120 Hz) tracked marker locations resulting in joint kinematics (trunk rotation, elbow extension velocity, arm slot angle at release) and ball metrics (velocity, trajectory). Three-dimensional stick-figure representations were qualitatively observed by three independent raters to score each throw for stepping and trunk action based on a previously reported throwing rubric.
Results
Across all distances, the control group threw with 100% accuracy compared to 67.7% for the LEL-ASD group. There were significant between-group differences for trunk rotation, arm slot angle, and ball velocity at the point of release as throwing distance increased. Kinematic analysis revealed a largely planar throwing motion that did not adjust for the LEL-ASD group.
Conclusions
Young adults diagnosed with LEL-ASD displayed altered overhand throwing patterns as compared to control participants. Kinematic results underscored the difference in throwing patterns and revealed a lack of accommodation to alter the throwing pattern as a function of target distance. These data reveal differences of movement patterns between LEL-ASD and typically developing participants, specifically actions requiring the synchronized coordination of upper and lower extremities.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, G., & Courchesne, E. (2003). Differential effects of developmental cerebellar abnormality on cognitive and motor functions in the cerebellum: An fMRI study of autism. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 262–273. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.2.262.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.
Anzulewicz, A., Sobota, K., & Delafield-Butt, J. T. (2016). Toward the autism motor signature: Gesture patterns during smart tablet gameplay identify children with autism. Scientific Reports, 6, 31107. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep31107.
Barbeau, E. B., Meilleur, A.-A. S., Zeffiro, T. A., & Mottron, L. (2015). Comparing motor skills in autism spectrum individuals with and without speech delay. Autism Research: Official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 8, 682–693. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1483.
Bauman, M., & Kemper, T. L. (1985). Histoanatomic observations of the brain in early infantile autism. Neurology, 35, 866–874. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.35.6.866.
Bhat, A. N., Galloway, J. C., & Landa, R. J. (2012). Relation between early motor delay and later communication delay in infants at risk for autism. Infant Behavior & Development, 35, 838–846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2012.07.019.
Cavallo, A., Romeo, L., Ansuini, C., Battaglia, F., Nobili, L., Pontil, M., Panzeri, S., & Becchio, C. (2021). Identifying the signature of prospective motor control in children with autism. Scientific Reports, 11, 3165. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-82374-2.
Courchesne, E. (2002). Abnormal early brain development in autism. Molecular Psychiatry, 7, S21–S23. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001169.
David, F. J., Baranek, G. T., Wiesen, C., Miao, A. F., & Thorpe, D. E. (2012). Coordination of precision grip in 2–6 years-old children with autism spectrum disorders compared to children developing typically and children with developmental disabilities. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00122.
Donnellan, A. M., Hill, D. A., & Leary, M. R. (2012). Rethinking autism: Implications of sensory and movement differences for understanding and support. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 6, 124. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00124.
Dufek, J. S., Eggleston, J. D., Harry, J. R., & Hickman, R. A. (2017). A comparative evaluation of gait between children with autism and typically developing matched controls. Medical Sciences (Basel, Switzerland), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/medsci5010001.
Escamilla, R. F., Fleisig, G. S., Barrentine, S. W., Zheng, N., & Andrews, J. R. (1998). Kinematic comparisons of throwing different types of baseball pitches. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 14, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1123/jab.14.1.1.
Fournier, K. A., Hass, C. J., Naik, S. K., Lodha, N., & Cauraugh, J. H. (2010). Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: A synthesis and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1227–1240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3.
Frith, U., Hill, E. L., Mari, M., Castiello, U., Marks, D., Marraffa, C., & Prior, M. (2003). The reach–to–grasp movement in children with autism spectrum disorder. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 358, 393–403. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2002.1205.
Gernsbacher, M. A., Sauer, E. A., Geye, H. M., Schweigert, E. K., & Hill Goldsmith, H. (2008). Infant and toddler oral- and manual-motor skills predict later speech fluency in autism. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 49, 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01820.x.
Glazebrook, C. M., Elliott, D., & Lyons, J. (2006). A kinematic analysis of how young adults with and without autism plan and control goal-directed movements. Motor Control, 10, 244–264. https://doi.org/10.1123/mcj.10.3.244.
Green, D., Charman, T., Pickles, A., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., Simonoff, E., & Baird, G. (2009). Impairment in movement skills of children with autistic spectrum disorders. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 51, 311–316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2008.03242.x.
Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. The Nervous Child, 2, 217–250.
Leary, M. R., & Hill, D. A. (1996). Moving on: Autism and movement disturbance. Mental Retardation, 34, 39–53.
Licari, M. K., Alvares, G. A., Varcin, K., Evans, K. L., Cleary, D., Reid, S. L., Glasson, E. J., Bebbington, K., Reynolds, J. E., Wray, J., & Whitehouse, A. J. O. (2020). Prevalence of motor difficulties in autism spectrum disorder: Analysis of a population-based cohort. Autism Research: Official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 13, 298–306. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2230.
Lim, Y. H., Partridge, K., Girdler, S., & Morris, S. L. (2017). Standing postural control in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 2238–2253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3144-y.
MacDonald, M., Lord, C., & Ulrich, D. A. (2013). The relationship of motor skills and social communicative skills in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly: APAQ, 30, 271–282. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.30.3.271.
MacWilliams, B. A., Choi, T., Perezous, M. K., Chao, E. Y., & McFarland, E. G. (1998). Characteristic ground-reaction forces in baseball pitching. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 26, 66–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/03635465980260014101.
Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Murray, M. J., Morrow, J. D., Yurich, K. K. L., Mahr, F., Cothren, S., Purichia, H., Bouder, J. N., & Petersen, C. (2009). Comparison of scores on the checklist for autism spectrum disorder, Childhood Autism Rating Scale, and Gilliam Asperger’s disorder scale for children with low functioning autism, high functioning autism, Asperger’s disorder, ADHD, and typical development. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1682–1693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0812-6.
McPhillips, M., Finlay, J., Bejerot, S., & Hanley, M. (2014). Motor deficits in children with autism spectrum disorder: A cross-syndrome study. Autism Research: Official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 7, 664–676. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1408.
Ming, X., Brimacombe, M., & Wagner, G. C. (2007). Prevalence of motor impairment in autism spectrum disorders. Brain and Development, 29, 565–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2007.03.002.
Minshew, N. J., Sung, K., Jones, B. L., & Furman, J. M. (2004). Underdevelopment of the postural control system in autism. Neurology, 63, 2056–2061. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000145771.98657.62.
Molloy, C. A., Dietrich, K. N., & Bhattacharya, A. (2003). Postural stability in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33, 643–652. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jadd.0000006001.00667.4c.
Moran, M. F., Foley, J. T., Parker, M. E., & Weiss, M. J. (2013). Two-legged hopping in autism spectrum disorders. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2013.00014.
Noterdaeme, M., Mildenberger, K., Minow, F., & Amorosa, H. (2002). Evaluation of neuromotor deficits in children with autism and children with a specific speech and language disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 11, 219–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-002-0285-z.
Papadopoulos, N., McGinley, J., Tonge, B. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Saunders, K., & Rinehart, N. J. (2012). An investigation of upper limb motor function in high functioning autism and Asperger’s disorder using a repetitive Fitts’ aiming task. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorder, 6, 286–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.05.010.
Perry, A., Condillac, R. A., Freeman, N. L., Dunn-Geier, J., & Belair, J. (2005). Multi-site study of the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) in five clinical groups of young children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 625–634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-0006-9.
Rinehart, N., & McGinley, J. (2010). Is motor dysfunction core to autism spectrum disorder? Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 52, 697–697. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.2010.03631.x.
Rinehart, N. J., Tonge, B. J., Bradshaw, J. L., Iansek, R., Enticott, P. G., & McGinley, J. (2006a). Gait function in high-functioning autism and Asperger’s disorder: Evidence for basal-ganglia and cerebellar involvement? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 15, 256–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0530-y.
Rinehart, N. J., Tonge, B. J., Iansek, R., McGinley, J., Brereton, A. V., Enticott, P. G., & Bradshaw, J. L. (2006b). Gait function in newly diagnosed children with autism: Cerebellar and basal ganglia related motor disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 48, 819–824. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0012162206001769.
Roberton, M. A., & Halverson, L. E. (1984). Developing Children--their Changing Movement: A Guide for Teachers. Lea & Febiger.
Roberton, M. A., & Konczak, J. (2001). Predicting children’s overarm throw ball velocities from their developmental levels in throwing. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 72, 91–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2001.10608939.
Sacrey, L.-A. R., Germani, T., Bryson, S. E., & Zwaigenbaum, L. (2014). Reaching and grasping in autism spectrum disorder: A review of recent literature. Frontiers in Neurology, 5, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2014.00006.
Schmitz, C., Martineau, J., Barthélémy, C., & Assaiante, C. (2003). Motor control and children with autism: Deficit of anticipatory function? Neuroscience Letters, 348, 17–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3940(03)00644-x.
Sinha, P., Kjelgaard, M. M., Gandhi, T. K., Tsourides, K., Cardinaux, A. L., Pantazis, D., Diamond, S. P., & Held, R. M. (2014). Autism as a disorder of prediction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111, 15220–15225. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1416797111.
Stodden, D. F., Langendorfer, S. J., Fleisig, G. S., & Andrews, J. R. (2006). Kinematic constraints associated with the acquisition of overarm throwing part I: Step and trunk actions. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 77, 417–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2006.10599377.
Stoit, A. M. B., van Schie, H. T., Slaats-Willemse, D. I. E., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2013). Grasping motor impairments in autism: Not action planning but movement execution is deficient. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(12), 2793-2806.
Todd, T. A., Ahrold, K., Jarvis, D. N., & Mache, M. A. (2020). Evaluation of overhand throwing among college students with and without autism spectrum disorder. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly: APAQ, 38, 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1825-8.
Torres, E. B., & Donnellan, A. M. (2015). Autism: The Movement Perspective. Frontiers Media SA.
Torres, E. B., Brincker, M., Isenhower, R. W. I., Yanovich, P., Stigler, K. A., Nurnberger, J. I. J., Metaxas, D. N., & Jose, J. V. (2013). Autism: The micro-movement perspective. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2013.00032.
Trevarthen, C., & Delafield-Butt, J. T. (2013). Autism as a developmental disorder in intentional movement and affective engagement. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 7, 49. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2013.00049.
Tsai, C.-L., Pan, C.-Y., Wang, C.-H., Tseng, Y.-T., & Hsieh, K.-W. (2011). An event-related potential and behavioral study of impaired inhibitory control in children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorder, 5, 1092–1102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.12.004.
Weiss, M. J., Moran, M. F., Parker, M. E., & Foley, J. T. (2013). Gait analysis of teenagers and young adults diagnosed with autism and severe verbal communication disorders. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2013.00033.
Williams, J. H. G., Whiten, A., & Singh, T. (2004). A systematic review of action imitation in autistic spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 285–299. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jadd.0000029551.56735.3a.
Zachor, D. A., Ilanit, T., & Itzchak, E. B. (2010). Autism severity and motor abilities correlates of imitation situations in children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorder, 4, 438–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2009.10.016.
Zoia, S., Barnett, A., Wilson, P., & Hill, E. (2006). Developmental coordination disorder: Current issues. Child: Care, Health and Development, 32, 613–618. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00697.x.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Herb Kemp for assistance with data collection and Courtney Blount, Jaclyn Mahlmeister, Karlee Russo, and Elizabeth Williams for their careful scoring of throwing trials.
Funding
This investigation was funded by a Sacred Heart University Research & Creativity Grant.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
MAL: formal analysis, validation, writing - original draft preparation; MFM: software, formal analysis, visualization, writing - reviewing and editing; JTF: formal analysis, writing - reviewing and editing; MEP: investigation, writing - reviewing and editing; MJW: conceptualization, methodology, writing - original draft preparation.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
All procedures in the study with human participants were in accordance to the ethical standards of the Sacred Heart University Institutional Review Board and in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration.
Consent to Participate
Informed consent was obtained from all participants/guardians in this study.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lauretti, M.A., Moran, M.F., Foley, J.T. et al. Assessment of Throwing Patterns in Young Adults Diagnosed with Low-Expressive Language Autism and Severe Communication Disorder. Adv Neurodev Disord 5, 316–325 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41252-021-00208-8
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41252-021-00208-8