Abstract
In the political discussion, the promotion of local food systems and short supply chains is sometimes presented as a means to increase the resilience of the food system, e.g. in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, and it is also suggested as a means to improve the environmental footprint of the food system. Differentiating between local food systems and short supply chains, a review of the literature on the environmental, social and economic dimensions of sustainability is carried out. “Local food” cannot simply be equated with “sustainable food”; in most cases, it neither can ensure food security nor does it necessarily have a lower carbon footprint. For the environmental sustainability of food systems, many more factors matter than just transportation, not least consumers’ dietary choices. In terms of social sustainability, local food systems are not necessarily more resilient, but they can contribute to rural development and a sense of community. In terms of economic sustainability, selling via short supply chains into local markets can benefit certain farmers, while for other producers it can be more profitable to supply international markets.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
While food security could be categorised differently, we see food security as being a part of broad-based benefits that sustainable food systems should bring to society, i.e. that it is part of the social dimension of sustainability (Nguyen, 2018).
References
AND International & ECORYS. (2021). Study on economic value of EU quality schemes, geographical indications (GIs) and traditional specialities guaranteed (TSGs). European Commission. https://doi.org/10.2762/396490.
Aubry, C., & Kebir, L. (2013). Shortening food supply chains: A means for maintaining agriculture close to urban areas? The case of the French metropolitan area of Paris. Food Policy, 41, 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.04.006.
Badampudi, D., Wohlin, C., & Petersen, K. (2015). Experiences from using snowballing and database searches in systematic literature studies. In ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, 27-29-Apri (pp. 1–10). https://doi.org/10.1145/2745802.2745818.
Bell, E. M., & Horvath, A. (2020). Modeling the carbon footprint of fresh produce: effects of transportation, localness, and seasonality on US orange markets. Environmental Research Letters, 15(3), 034040. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab6c2f.
Bellmann, C. (2020). Privileging Local Food is Flawed Solution to Reduce Emissions (Global Trade Policy Forum). https://www.chathamhouse.org/2020/04/privileging-local-food-flawed-solution-reduce-emissions
Benis, K., & Ferrão, P. (2017). Potential mitigation of the environmental impacts of food systems through urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) – a life cycle assessment approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 140, 784–795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.05.176.
Brinkley, C., Manser, G. M., & Pesci, S. (2021). Growing pains in local food systems: a longitudinal social network analysis on local food marketing in Baltimore County, Maryland and Chester County, Pennsylvania. Agriculture and Human Values, 1, 3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-021-10199-w.
Campbell, B. (2012). Is eating local good for the climate? Thinking beyond food miles. https://www.ccafs.cgiar.org/blog/eating-local-good-climate-thinking-beyond-food-miles.
Carlsson-Kanyama, A., & González, A. D. (2009). Potential contributions of food consumption patterns to climate change. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1704S–1709S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736AA.
Clapp, J. (2017). Food self-sufficiency: Making sense of it, and when it makes sense. Food Policy, 66, 88–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2016.12.001.
Coley, D., Howard, M., & Winter, M. (2009). Local food, food miles and carbon emissions: A comparison of farm shop and mass distribution approaches. Food Policy, 34(2), 150–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.11.001.
CONCITO. (2021). Ny database gør os klogere på fødevarers klimabelastning. https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=da&tl=en&u=https://concito.dk/nyheder/ny-database-goer-os-klogere-paa-foedevarers-klimabelastning
CoR. (2021). From farm to fork – the local and regional dimension (2021/C 37/04; Opinion). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52020IR0594
Costello, C., Oveysi, Z., & McGarvey, R. (2021). Assessment of the Effect of Urban Agriculture on Achieving a Localized Food System Centered on Chicago, IL Using Robust Optimization. Environmental Science & Technology, acs.est.0c04118. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c04118.
Crippa, M., Solazzo, E., Guizzardi, D., Monforti-Ferrario, F., Tubiello, F. N., & Leip, A. (2021). Food systems are responsible for a third of global anthropogenic GHG emissions. Nature Food, 2(3), 198–209. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-021-00225-9.
D’Odorico, P., Carr, J. A., Laio, F., Ridolfi, L., & Vandoni, S. (2014). Feeding humanity through global food trade. Earth’s Future, 2(9), 458–469. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014EF000250.
de Fazio, M. (2016). Agriculture and Sustainability of the Welfare: The Role of the Short Supply Chain. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia, 8, 461–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2016.02.044.
Deppermann, A., Havlík, P., Valin, H., Boere, E., Herrero, M., Vervoort, J., & Mathijs, E. (2018). The market impacts of shortening feed supply chains in Europe. Food Security, 10(6), 1401–1410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-0868-2.
DeSoucey, M. (2012). Gastronationalism. In The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog226.
Dixon, L., Duncan, C., Fagan, J. C., Mandernach, M., & Warlick, S. E. (2010). Finding Articles and Journals via Google Scholar, Journal Portals, and Link Resolvers: Usability Study Results on JSTOR. Reference and User Services Quarterly, 50(2), 170–181. https://doi.org/10.5860/rusq.50n2.
Eaternity. (2014). Eaternity Score: Precise assessments for your foods environmental footprint. https://eaternity.org/score/
EC. (2014). Support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (807/2014; Commission Delegated Regulation (EU)). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg_del/2014/807/oj
EC. (2020a). A Farm to Fork Strategy for a fair, healthy and environmentally-friendly food system (COM/2020/381; Communication). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52020DC0381
EC. (2020b). Extra-EU trade in agricultural goods (Statistics Explained). https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Extra-EU_trade_in_agricultural_goods
EC. (2020c). Geographical Indications – a European treasure worth €75 billion (Press Release). https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_20_683
EC. (2021). CAP strategic plans (Key Policies). https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/key-policies/common-agricultural-policy/cap-strategic-plans_en
Edwards-Jones, G. (2010). Does eating local food reduce the environmental impact of food production and enhance consumer health? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 69(4), 582–591. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665110002004.
ENRD. (2020). Promoting local food through online platforms: experiences across the EU. https://enrd.ec.europa.eu/news-events/news/promoting-local-food-through-online-platforms-experiences-across-eu_en
Eriksson, S., & Helgesson, G. (2017). The false academy: predatory publishing in science and bioethics. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 20(2), 163–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11019-016-9740-3.
EU. (2013). Support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (1305/2013; Regulation (EU)). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2013/1305/oj
Fraser, I., & Balcombe, K. (2018). Wrapped in the Flag: Food Choice and Country of Origin Labelling. EuroChoices, 17(3), 37–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/1746-692X.12189.
Galli, F., & Brunori, G. (2015). Short food supply chains as drivers of sustainable development (Evidence Document). https://orgprints.org/28858/
Galli, F., Bartolini, F., Brunori, G., Colombo, L., Gava, O., Grando, S., & Marescotti, A. (2015). Sustainability assessment of food supply chains: an application to local and global bread in Italy. Agricultural and Food Economics, 3(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-015-0039-0.
Glauber, J., Laborde, D., Martin, W., & Vos, R. (2020). COVID-19: Trade restrictions are worst possible response to safeguard food security. https://www.ifpri.org/blog/covid-19-trade-restrictions-are-worst-possible-response-safeguard-food-security
Hasselbach, J. L., & Roosen, J. (2015). Consumer Heterogeneity in the Willingness to Pay for Local and Organic Food. Journal of Food Products Marketing, 21(6), 608–625. https://doi.org/10.1080/10454446.2014.885866.
Karg, H., Drechsel, P., Akoto-Danso, E., Glaser, R., Nyarko, G., & Buerkert, A. (2016). Foodsheds and City Region Food Systems in Two West African Cities. Sustainability, 8(12), 1175. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8121175.
Kinnunen, P., Guillaume, J. H. A., Taka, M., D’Odorico, P., Siebert, S., Puma, M. J., Jalava, M., & Kummu, M. (2020). Local food crop production can fulfil demand for less than one-third of the population. Nature Food, 1(4), 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-020-0060-7.
Kiss, K., Ruszkai, C., & Takács-György, K. (2019). Examination of Short Supply Chains Based on Circular Economy and Sustainability Aspects. Resources, 8(4), 161. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources8040161.
Kneafsey, M., Venn, L., Schmutz, U., Balázs, B., Trenchard, L., Eyden-Wood, T., Bos, E., Sutton, G., & Blackett, M. (2013). Short food supply chains and local food systems in the EU (EUR 25911 EN; JRC Scientific and Policy Reports). https://doi.org/10.2791/88784.
Koerber, A., Starkey, J. C., Ardon-Dryer, K., Cummins, R. G., Eko, L., & Kee, K. F. (2020). A qualitative content analysis of watchlists vs safelists: How do they address the issue of predatory publishing? Journal of Academic Librarianship, 46(6), 102236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2020.102236.
Lazzarini, G. A., Visschers, V. H. M., & Siegrist, M. (2017). Our own country is best: Factors influencing consumers’ sustainability perceptions of plant-based foods. Food Quality and Preference, 60, 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2017.04.008.
Low, S. A., Adalja, A., Beaulieu, E., Key, N., Martinez, S., Melton, A., Perez, A., Ralston, K., Stewart, H., Suttles, S., Vogel, S., & Jablonski, B. B. R. (2015). Trends in U.S. Local and Regional Food Systems. https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=42807
Macdiarmid, J. I. (2014). Seasonality and dietary requirements: Will eating seasonal food contribute to health and environmental sustainability? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 73(3), 368–375. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665113003753.
Majewski, E., Komerska, A., Kwiatkowski, J., Malak-Rawlikowska, A., Wąs, A., Sulewski, P., Gołaś, M., Pogodzińska, K., Lecoeur, J.-L., Tocco, B., Török, Á., Donati, M., & Vittersø, G. (2020). Are Short Food Supply Chains More Environmentally Sustainable than Long Chains? A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the Eco-Efficiency of Food Chains in Selected EU Countries. Energies, 13(18), 4853. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13184853.
Malak-Rawlikowska, A., Majewski, E., Wąs, A., Borgen, S. O., Csillag, P., Donati, M., Freeman, R., Hoàng, V., Lecoeur, J.-L., Mancini, M. C., Nguyen, A., Saïdi, M., Tocco, B., Török, Á., Veneziani, M., Vittersø, G., & Wavresky, P. (2019). Measuring the Economic, Environmental, and Social Sustainability of Short Food Supply Chains. Sustainability, 11(15), 4004. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154004.
Mancini, M., Menozzi, D., Donati, M., Biasini, B., Veneziani, M., & Arfini, F. (2019). Producers’ and Consumers’ Perception of the Sustainability of Short Food Supply Chains: The Case of Parmigiano Reggiano PDO. Sustainability, 11(3), 721. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030721.
Markuszewska, A., Prior, A., Strano, A., Bálint, B., Midoux, B., Bros, C., Koutsaftaki, C., Jochum, C., Buffet, C., McGlynn, D., Bravo, F. del, Valtari, H., Czaja, J., Saalasto, P., Töyli, P., Kokovkin, R., Redman, M., Mazili, S. R., Silm, S., … Hudson, T. (2012). EU rural review (No. 12; EU Rural Review). https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/42858164-67b1-49df-920b-349b25e55064
Migliore, G., Schifani, G., & Cembalo, L. (2015). Opening the black box of food quality in the short supply chain: Effects of conventions of quality on consumer choice. Food Quality and Preference, 39, 141–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2014.07.006.
Mugera, A., Burton, M., & Downsborough, E. (2017). Consumer Preference and Willingness to Pay for a Local Label Attribute in Western Australian Fresh and Processed Food Products. Journal of Food Products Marketing, 23(4), 452–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/10454446.2015.1048019.
Mundler, P., & Laughrea, S. (2016). The contributions of short food supply chains to territorial development: A study of three Quebec territories. Journal of Rural Studies, 45, 218–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.04.001.
Mundler, P., & Rumpus, L. (2012). The energy efficiency of local food systems: A comparison between different modes of distribution. Food Policy, 37(6), 609–615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.07.006.
Nguyen, H. (2018). Sustainable food systems (No. CA2079EN; FAO Brief). http://www.fao.org/3/ca2079en/CA2079EN.pdf
Notarnicola, B., Sala, S., Anton, A., McLaren, S. J., Saouter, E., & Sonesson, U. (2017). The role of life cycle assessment in supporting sustainable agri-food systems: A review of the challenges. Journal of Cleaner Production, 140, 399–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.071.
OECD. (2020). Rural Well-being: Geography of Opportunities (OECD Rural Studies). Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. https://doi.org/10.1787/d25cef80-en.
Paciarotti, C., & Torregiani, F. (2021). The logistics of the short food supply chain: A literature review. In Sustainable Production and Consumption (Vol. 26, pp. 428–442). Elsevier B.V. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2020.10.002.
Peters, C. J., Bills, N. L., Wilkins, J. L., & Fick, G. W. (2009). Foodshed analysis and its relevance to sustainability. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 24(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170508002433.
Poore, J. (2018). We label fridges to show their environmental impact – why not food? The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/10/we-label-fridges-to-show-their-environmental-impact-why-not-food
Pradhan, P., Lüdeke, M. K. B., Reusser, D. E., & Kropp, J. P. (2014). Food self-sufficiency across scales: How local can we go? Environmental Science and Technology, 48(16), 9463–9470. https://doi.org/10.1021/es5005939.
Pradhan, P., Fischer, G., van Velthuizen, H., Reusser, D. E., & Kropp, J. P. (2015). Closing Yield Gaps: How Sustainable Can We Be? PLOS ONE, 10(6), e0129487. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129487.
Printezis, I., Grebitus, C., & Hirsch, S. (2019). The price is right!? A meta-regression analysis on willingness to pay for local food. PLOS ONE, 14(5), e0215847. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215847.
Puigdueta, I., Aguilera, E., Cruz, J. L., Iglesias, A., & Sanz-Cobena, A. (2021). Urban agriculture may change food consumption towards low carbon diets. Global Food Security, 28, 100507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100507.
Puma, M. J., Bose, S., Chon, S. Y., & Cook, B. I. (2015). Assessing the evolving fragility of the global food system. Environmental Research Letters, 10(2), 024007. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/2/024007.
Rask, K. J., & Rask, N. (2011). Economic development and food production-consumption balance: A growing global challenge. Food Policy, 36(2), 186–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.11.015.
Ritchie, H. (2020). You want to reduce the carbon footprint of your food? Focus on what you eat, not whether your food is local (Our World in Data). https://ourworldindata.org/food-choice-vs-eating-local
Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2020). Environmental impacts of food production (Our World in Data). https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food
Rogissart, L., Foucherot, C., & Bellassen, V. (2019). Food policies and climate: a literature review. https://www.i4ce.org/download/food-policies-and-climate-a-literature-review/
Sandström, V., Valin, H., Krisztin, T., Havlík, P., Herrero, M., & Kastner, T. (2018). The role of trade in the greenhouse gas footprints of EU diets. Global Food Security, 19, 48–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2018.08.007.
Schmitt, E., Galli, F., Menozzi, D., Maye, D., Touzard, J. M., Marescotti, A., Six, J., & Brunori, G. (2017). Comparing the sustainability of local and global food products in Europe. Journal of Cleaner Production, 165, 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.07.039.
Schreiber, K., Hickey, G. M., Metson, G. S., Robinson, B. E., & MacDonald, G. K. (2021). Quantifying the foodshed: a systematic review of urban food flow and local food self-sufficiency research. Environmental Research Letters, 16(2), 023003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abad59.
Schwarz, J., Schuster, M., Annaert, B., Maertens, M., & Mathijs, E. (2016). Sustainability of Global and Local Food Value Chains: An Empirical Comparison of Peruvian and Belgian Asparagus. Sustainability, 8(4), 344. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8040344.
Sexton, S. (2009). Does Local Production Improve Environmental and Health Outcomes? ARE Update, 13(2), 5–8 https://giannini.ucop.edu/publications/are-update/issues/2009/13/2/does-local-production-imp/.
Shultz, M. (2007). Comparing test searches in PubMed and Google Scholar. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 95(4), 442–445. https://doi.org/10.3163/1536-5050.95.4.442.
Takacs, B., & Borrion, A. (2020). The Use of Life Cycle-Based Approaches in the Food Service Sector to Improve Sustainability: A Systematic Review. Sustainability, 12(9), 3504. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093504.
Tasca, A. L., Nessi, S., & Rigamonti, L. (2017). Environmental sustainability of agri-food supply chains: An LCA comparison between two alternative forms of production and distribution of endive in northern Italy. Journal of Cleaner Production, 140, 725–741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.170.
Thomson, A., & Metz, M. (1998). Implications of Economic Policy for Food Security (No. 40; Training Materials for Agricultural Planning). http://www.fao.org/3/x3936e/X3936E00.htm
Verstegen, J. A. (2020). The local versus global food debate. Nature Food, 1(4), 198–199. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-020-0062-5.
Vittersø, G., Torjusen, H., Laitala, K., Tocco, B., Biasini, B., Csillag, P., de Labarre, M. D., Lecoeur, J.-L., Maj, A., Majewski, E., Malak-Rawlikowska, A., Menozzi, D., Török, Á., & Wavresky, P. (2019). Short Food Supply Chains and Their Contributions to Sustainability: Participants’ Views and Perceptions from 12 European Cases. Sustainability, 11(17), 4800. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11174800.
Webb, J., Williams, A. G., Hope, E., Evans, D., & Moorhouse, E. (2013). Do foods imported into the UK have a greater environmental impact than the same foods produced within the UK? International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 18(7), 1325–1343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0576-2.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the editor and a reviewer for their helpful comments and for making our discussion of the policy implications stronger. Any remaining shortcomings are our responsibility alone.
Code availability
Not applicable
Availability of data and material
Not applicable
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
AJS: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, writing; FS: conceptualization, writing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable
Consent to participate
Not applicable
Consent for publication
Not applicable
Disclaimer
The information and views set out in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the European Commission.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stein, A.J., Santini, F. The sustainability of “local” food: a review for policy-makers. Rev Agric Food Environ Stud 103, 77–89 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41130-021-00148-w
Published:
Issue date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41130-021-00148-w