Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Long-term assessment of water quality of Kathmandu University Drinking Water Supply Centre, Nepal

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sustainable Water Resources Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

As drinking water quality determines the health and sanitation of any area, it is imperative to assess and monitor the water quality. Kathmandu University Drinking Water Supply Centre (aKUa) was established in 2017 with an aim to provide good quality and processed drinking water to different schools and associated offices of Kathmandu University (KU). The continuous monitoring of physico-chemical and biological water quality parameters was conducted before treatment (BLT) and after treatment (ALT) by the Aquatic Ecology Centre (AEC) of KU from the beginning of 2018 to the end of 2020. Physical parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, turbidity, and temperature were analyzed on a daily basis. Whereas, basic chemical parameters such as ammonia, nitrate, chloride, fluoride, total hardness, and calcium hardness along with biological parameters, total coliform and Escherichia coli were analyzed on a weekly basis. Moreover, heavy metals; iron, cadmium, manganese, and arsenic were analyzed on a yearly basis. From the data obtained by three years of continuous monitoring, the seasonal variation and monthly variation in physico-chemical and microbial parameters of before and after treatment samples were also analyzed. Also, results revealed the analyzed variables were comparable with the National Drinking Water Quality Standards, 2005 of the Government of Nepal and found to be within the permissible limit. Further, the significant difference in before treatment BLT and after treatment ALT was found in various physico-chemical as well as biological parameters. Moreover, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed various principal components contributing to water quality in both BLT and ALT. In conclusion, water supplied by aKUa is suitable to use for drinking purposes. The continuous monitoring of water and effort from the concerned team is key for successful improvement and upkeep of the drinking water quality.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • APHA (2017) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 23rd Edition. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation

  • Briffa J, Sinagra E, Blundell R (2020) Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon 6:e04691

  • Burlakoti N, Upadhyaya J, Ghimire N, Bajgai TR, Chhetri AB, Rawal DS, Koirala N, Pant BR (2020) Physical, chemical and microbiological characterization of processed drinking water in central Nepal: current state study. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev 10:157–165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cabral JP (2010) Water microbiology. Bacterial pathogens and water. Int J Environ Res Public Health 7:3657–3703

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen N, Hong H, Gao X (2021) Securing drinking water resources for a coastal city under global change: scientific and institutional perspectives. Ocean Coast Manag 207:104427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury S, Mazumder MJ, Al-Attas O, Husain T (2016) Heavy metals in drinking water: occurrences, implications, and future needs in developing countries. Sci Total Environ 569:476–488

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cosgrove WJ, Loucks DP (2015) Water management: current and future challenges and research directions. Water Resour Res 51:4823–4839

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel D, Diener A, van de Vossenberg J, Bhatta M, Marks SJ (2020) Assessing drinking water quality at the point of collection and within household storage Containers in the Hilly Rural Areas of mid and far-Western Nepal. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17:2172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deshwal J, Saharan J, Deshwal B (2016) A study on water quality parameters of drinking water of rural areas of Narwana, Haryana (India). Int J Curr Res 8:329–333

    Google Scholar 

  • Dindarloo K, Ghaffari HR, Kheradpisheh Z, Alipour V, Ghanbarnejad A, Fakhri Y, Goodarzi B (2016) Drinking water quality: comparative study of tap water, drinking bottled water and point of use (PoU) treated water in Bandar-e-Abbas. Iran Desalin Water Treat 57:4487–4493

    Google Scholar 

  • Fawell J, Bailey K, Chilton J, Dahi E, Magara Y (2006) Fluoride in drinking-water. IWA publishing, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferré L (1995) Selection of components in principal component analysis: a comparison of methods. Comp Stat Data Anal 19:669–682

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gahan CS, Sundkvist JE, Dopson M, Sandström Å (2010) Effect of chloride on ferrous iron oxidation by a Leptospirillum ferriphilum-dominated chemostat culture. Biotechnol Bioeng 106:422–431

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanduti D, Sterbenk P, Artnik B (2016) Fluoride: a review of use and effects on health. Materia Socio-Medica 28:133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maharjan S, Joshi TP, Shrestha SM (2018) Poor quality of treated water in Kathmandu: comparison with Nepal drinking water quality standards. Tribhuvan University J Microbiol 5:83–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahurpawar M (2015) Effects of heavy metals on human health. Int JRes Granthaalayah 3(9):2394–3629

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohod CV, Dhote J (2013) Review of heavy metals in drinking water and their effect on human health. Int J Innov Res Sci Eng Technol 2:2992–2996

    Google Scholar 

  • Pandey CL (2021) Managing urban water security: challenges and prospects in Nepal. Environ Dev Sustain 23:241–257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parihar S, Ajit K, Ajay K, Gupta R, Manoj P, Archana S, Pandey A (2012) Physico-chemical and microbiological analysis of underground water in and around Gwalior city, MP, India. Res J Recent Sci 2277:62–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Radfard M, Yunesian M, Nabizadeh R, Biglari H, Nazmara S, Hadi M, Yousefi N, Yousefi M, Abbasnia A, Mahvi AH (2018) Drinking water quality and arsenic health risk assessment in Sistan and Baluchestan, Southeastern Province. Iran Hum Ecol Risk AssessInt J 25:949–965

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rai S, Ono K, Yanagida J, Ishiyama-Imura S, Kurokawa M, Rai C (2012) A large-scale study of bacterial contamination of drinking water and its public health impact in Nepal. Nepal Med Coll J 14:234–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Rufener S, Mäusezahl D, Mosler HJ, Weingartner R (2010) Quality of drinking-water at source and point-of-consumption—drinking cup as a high potential recontamination risk: a field study in Bolivia. J Health Popul Nutr 28(1):34–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sapkota S, Pradhan SP, Nicholson K, Neumann K, Sharma S (2019) Drinking water quality of Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Natural Resources, Agriculture Society in Changing Climate, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp 146–160

  • Sharma S, Baidya M, Poudel P, Panthi SR, Pote-Shrestha RR, Ghimire A, Pradhan SP (2021) Drinking water status in Nepal: an overview in the context of climate change. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev 11(6):859–866

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiwari PC, Tiwari A, Joshi B (2018) Urban growth in Himalaya: understanding the process and options for sustainable development. J Urban Reg Stud Contemp India 4:15–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Udmale P, Ishidaira H, Thapa BR, Shakya NM (2016) The status of domestic water demand: supply deficit in the Kathmandu Valley. Nepal Water 8:196

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UN-Water (2017) UN-Water Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-Water (GLAAS) 2017 report: Financing universal water, sanitation and hygiene under the Sustainable Development Goals. WHO Geneva

  • Upadhyay JP (2018) Higher Education in Nepal. Pravaha 24:96–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward MH, DeKok TM, Levallois P, Brender J, Gulis G, Nolan BT, VanDerslice J (2005) Workgroup report: drinking-water nitrate and health—recent findings and research needs. Environ Health Perspect 113:1607–1614

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wasana HM, Perera GD, Gunawardena PDS, Fernando PS, Bandara J (2017) WHO water quality standards Vs Synergic effect (s) of fluoride, heavy metals and hardness in drinking water on kidney tissues. Sci Rep 7:1–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO/UNICEF (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines. World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Authors like to thank the physical facility of Kathmandu University and the regular staff of aKUa for their constant efforts to manage the water supply system. We are grateful to Mr. Shiwashish Singh Swar for providing the high-quality drone shoot image of Kathmandu University.

Funding

Not applicable.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Suman Prakash Pradhan, Prayon Joshi and Prativa Poudel contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Aquatic Ecology Centre, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal

    Suman Prakash Pradhan, Prayon Joshi, Prativa Poudel, Samikshya Chhetri, Junu Maharjan, Nilisha Khadgi, Moti Poudel, Ram Devi Tachamo Shah & Subodh Sharma

  2. Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal

    Suman Prakash Pradhan, Prativa Poudel, Anish Ghimire, Moti Poudel & Subodh Sharma

  3. Department of Pharmacy, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal

    Anup Luitel

  4. Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal

    Bishnu Prasad Pandey

  5. Department of Life Sciences, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal

    Ram Devi Tachamo Shah

Authors
  1. Suman Prakash Pradhan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Prayon Joshi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Prativa Poudel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Anish Ghimire
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Samikshya Chhetri
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Junu Maharjan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Nilisha Khadgi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Moti Poudel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Anup Luitel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Bishnu Prasad Pandey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Ram Devi Tachamo Shah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Subodh Sharma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

SPP; laboratory works, data analysis, and manuscript preparation, PJ; laboratory works, data analysis, and manuscript preparation, PP; laboratory works, data analysis, and manuscript preparation, AG; supervision and manuscript preparation SC; laboratory works, JM; data analysis, MP; data analysis and manuscript preparation, NK; laboratory works, AL; supervision of aKUa, BPP; supervision and manuscript preparation, RDTS; supervision and manuscript preparation, and SS; conceptualization of project and supervision.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Subodh Sharma.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

Authors declare no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

Not applicable.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 35 KB)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pradhan, S.P., Joshi, P., Poudel, P. et al. Long-term assessment of water quality of Kathmandu University Drinking Water Supply Centre, Nepal. Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. 8, 41 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-022-00636-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-022-00636-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation