Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Development of a Bench-Top Intermediate-Strain-Rate (ISR) Test Apparatus for Soft Materials

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Dynamic Behavior of Materials Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Soft materials are widely used in physical protection systems of high value or delicate assets to mitigate the mechanical shock and impact environments from accidental drops to collisions to explosions. In these environments, the large deformation response of soft materials at the intermediate strain rate range (10’s to 100’s per second) is critical to understanding the performance of the protection system. Historically, however, intermediate-strain-rate material property data for most materials, including soft materials, has frequently not been available due to the lack of experimental capabilities for material response characterization. In this work, a high-speed-actuator based intermediate-strain-rate (ISR) uniaxial test apparatus was developed and deployed to measure the associated behavior of a selection of elastomer solids and lattice structures. The electromechanical actuator has a maximum speed of 1.9 m/s and a maximum travel distance of ~ 150 mm, which enables the deformation of the specimen to large strains and strain rates up to 102 s−1. This ISR apparatus has a maximum load capacity of ~ 13,300 N, which allows the characterization of most soft materials such as soft polymers and their foams. The ISR apparatus can be operated under large deformation conditions in multiple modes, such as load-hold, load-unload, load-hold-unload, ratcheted loading and holding, or any combination of these three basic steps. This capability enables characterization of a material’s loading, stress-relaxation, unloading, and repeat-cyclic loading responses related to different mechanical environments. The development of this ISR apparatus fills the previously existing gap between conventional servohydraulic material testing frames and Kolsky bars, which enables a full material property characterization of soft materials from low (less than 10 s−1), intermediate (10’s to 100’s s−1), to high strain rates (500 s−1 and above) without any gaps.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Sounik DF, Gansen P, Clemons JL, Liddle JW (1997) Head-impact testing of polyurethane energy-absorbing (ea) foams. SAE Trans J Mater Manu 106:211–220

    Google Scholar 

  2. Gray GT, Blumenthal WR (2000) Split Hopkinson pressure bar testing of soft materials. ASM Handbook 8:488–496

    Google Scholar 

  3. Song B, Chen W (2005) Split Hopkinson pressure bar techniques for characterizing soft materials. Latin Am J Solids Struct 2:113–152

    Google Scholar 

  4. Chen W, Song B (2011) Split Hopkinson (Kolsky) bar: design, testing, and applications. Springer, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  5. Gupta N, Shunmugasamy VC (2011) High strain rate compressive response of syntactic foams: trends in mechanical properties and failure mechanisms. Mater Sci Eng A 528:7596–7605

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Luong DD, Pinisetty D, Gupta N (2013) Compressive properties of closed-cell polyvinyl chloride foams at low and high strain rates: experimental investigation and critical review of state of the art. Compos Part B 44:403–416

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Bhujangrao T, Froustey C, Iriondo E, Ceiga F, Darnis P, Mata FG (2020) Review of intermediate strain rate testing devices. Metals 10:894

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Béguelin Ph, Barbezat M, Kausch H (1991) Mechanical characterization of polymers and composites with a servohydraulic high-speed tensile tester. J Phys III EDP Sci 1:1867–1880

    Google Scholar 

  9. Mae H, Omiya M, Kishimoto K (2008) Effects of strain rate and density on tensile behavior of polypropylene syntactic foam with polymer microballons. Mater Sci Eng A 477:168–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Xu S, Ruan D, Lu G (2014) Strength enhancement of aluminum foams and honeycombs by entrapped air under dynamic loadings. Int J Impact Eng 74:120–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Kim JG, Kim HC, Kwon JB, Shin DK, Lee JJ, Huh H (2015) Tensile behavior of aluminum/carbon fiber reinforced polymer hybrid composites at intermediate strain rates. J Compos Mater 49:1179–1193

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Yang L, Xie K, Pei J, Sui X, Wang N (2016) Compressive mechanical properties of HTPB propellant at low, intermediate, and high strain rates. J Appl Polym Sci 15:43512

    Google Scholar 

  13. Yang L, Wang N, Xie K, Sui X, Li S (2016) Influence of strain rate on the compressive yield stress of CMDB propellant at low, intermediate, and high strain rates. Polym Testing 51:49–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Wu H, Ma G, Xia Y (2004) Experimental study of tensile properties of PMMA at intermediate strain rate. Mater Lett 58:3681–3685

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Shokrieh MM, Omidi MJ (2011) Investigating the transverse behavior of glass-epoxy composites under intermediate strain rates. Compos Struct 93:690–696

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Briers WJ III (2015) Overcoming challenges in material characterization of polymers at intermediate strain rates. In: Qi HJ, Antoun B, Hall R, Lu H, Arzoumanidis A, Silberstein M, Furmanski J, Amirkhizi A, Gonzalez-Gutierrez J (eds), Challenges in Mechanics of Time-Dependent Materials, Volume 2: Proceedings of the 2014 Annual Conference on Experimental and Applied Mechanics, pp.153–164.

  17. Weiss RT, Goldsmith W, Chase K (1970) Mechanical and optical properties of an anelastic polymer at intermediate strain rates and large strains. J Polym Sci Part A 8:1713–1722

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Roland CM, Twigg JN, Vu Y, Mott PH (2007) High strain rate mechanical behavior of polyurea. Polymer 48:574–578

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Liu D-S, Chen Z-H, Tsai C-Y, Ye R-J, Yu K-T (2017) Compressive mechanical property analysis of EVA foam: its buffering effects at different impact velocities. J Mech 33:435–441

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Ramirez BJ, Kingstedt OT, Crum R, Gamez C, Gupta V (2017) Tailoring the rate-sensitivity of low density polyurea foams through cell wall aperture size. J Appl Phys 121:225107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Chiacchiarelli LM, Cerruttie P, Flores-Johnson EA (2020) Compressive behavior of rigid polyurethane foams nanostructured with bacterial nanocellulose at low and intermediate strain rates. J Appl Polym Sci. https://doi.org/10.1002/APP.48701

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Bhagavathula KB, Meredith CS, Ouellet S, Satapathy SS, Romanyk DL, Hogan JD (2022) Density, microstructure, and strain-rate effects on the compressive response of polyurethane foams. Exp Mech 62:505–519

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Viot Ph, Shankar K, Bernard D (2008) Effect of strain rate and density on dynamic behaviour of syntactic foam. Compos Struct 86:314–327

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Bouix R, Viot Ph, Lataillade J-L (2009) Polypropylene foam behaviour under dynamic loadings: strain rate, density, and microstructure effects. Int J Impact Eng 36:329–342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Song B, Syn CJ, Grupido CL, Chen W, Lu W-Y (2008) A long split Hopkinson pressure bar (LSHPB) for intermediate-rate characterization of soft materials. Exp Mech 48:809–815

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Luo H, Cooper WL, Lu H (2014) Effects of particle size and moisture on the compressive behavior of dense Eglin sand under confinement at high strain rates. Int J Impact Eng 65:40–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Froustey C, Lambert M, Charles JL, Lataillade JL (2007) Design of an impact loading machine based on a flywheel device: application to the fatigue resistance of the high rate pre-straining sensitivity of aluminum alloys. Exp Mech 47:709–721

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Zhu WC, Niu LL, Li SH, Xu ZH (2015) Dynamic Brazilian test of rock under intermediate strain rate: pendulum hammer-driven SHPB test and numerical simulation. Rock Mech Rock Eng 48:1867–1881

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Forni D, Chiaia B, Cadoni E (2016) High strain rate response of S355 at high temperatures. Materials Design 94:467–478

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Clausen AH, Børvik T, Hopperstad OS, Benallal A (2004) Flow and fracture characteristics of aluminum alloy AA5083-H116 as function of strain rate, temperature and triaxiality. Mater Sci Eng, A 364:260–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Gilat A, Matrka TA (2010) A new compression intermediate strain rate testing apparatus. EPJ Web of Conferences 6:39002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Govender RA, Curry RJ (2016) The “open” Hopkinson pressure bar: towards addressing force equilibrium in specimens with non-uniform deformation. J Dyn Behav Mater 2:43–49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Whittington WR, Oppedal AL, Francis DK, Horstemeyer MF (2015) A novel intermediate strain rate testing device: the serpentine transmitted bar. Int J Impact Eng 81:1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Roth CC, Gary G, Mohr D (2015) Compact SHPB system for intermediate and high strain rate plasticity and fracture testing of sheet metal. Exp Mech 55:1803–1811

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Zhao H, Gary G (1997) A new method for separation of waves. Application to the SHPB technique for an unlimited measuring duration. J Mech Phys Solids 45:1185–1202

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Park SW, Zhou M (1999) Separation of elastic waves in split Hopkinson bars using one-point strain measurements. Exp Mech 39:287–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Song B, Sanborn B, Heister JD, Everett RL, Martinez TL, Groves GE, Johnson EP, Kenney DJ, Knight ME, Spletzer MA, Haulenbeek KK, McConnell C (2019) An apparatus for tensile characterization of materials within the upper intermediate strain rate regime. Exp Mech 59:941–951

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Song B, Chen W (2006) Energy for specimen deformation in a split Hopkinson pressure bar experiment. Exp Mech 46:622–627

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Sanborn B, Song B (2019) Energy dissipation characteristics in pre-strained silicone foam transitioning to silicone rubber. J Dyn Behav Mater 5:51–58

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Song B, Sanborn B (2022) Energy analyses in Kolsky bar experiments. In: Song B (ed) Advances in experimental impact mechanics. Springer, New York, pp 315–343

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  41. Yokoyama T, Nakai K (2010) Determination of high strain-rate compressive stress-strain loops of selected polymers. Appl Mech Mater 24–25:349–355

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Nie X, Song B, Loeffler CM (2015) A novel splitting-beam laser extensometer technique for Kolsky tension bar experiment. J Dyn Behav Mater 1:70–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Bolintineanu DS, Waymel R, Collis H, Long KN, Quintana EC, Kramer SLB (2021) Anisotropy evolution of elastomeric foams during uniaxial compression measured via in-situ X-ray computed tomography. Materialia 18:10112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Long KN, Hamel CM, Waymel R, Bolintineanu D, Quintana E, Kramer S (2020) Room-temperature, quasi-static characterization and constitutive model parametrization of flexible polyurethane foams of different densities loaded in different orientations, Sandia Report, SAND2020–10730.

  45. Kramer SLB, Long KN, Bolintineanu DD, Quintana E, Waymel R, Hamel CM, Koester J, Frankel A, Roberts SA, Martinez C, Donohoe B, Miers J, Ivanoff TA, Collis H (2021) Large-deformation mechanics of flexible polymer foams, Sandia Report, SAND2021–1825.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Drs. Sharlotte Kramer and Craig Hamel for sharing the previous experimental data. This work was supported by the Laboratory Directed Research and Development program at Sandia National Laboratories, a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology and Engineering Solutions of Sandia LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc. for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration under contract DE-NA0003525.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, 87123, USA

    B. Song, T. Martinez, D. Landry, P. Aragon & K. Long

Authors
  1. B. Song
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. T. Martinez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. D. Landry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. P. Aragon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. K. Long
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to B. Song.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Song, B., Martinez, T., Landry, D. et al. Development of a Bench-Top Intermediate-Strain-Rate (ISR) Test Apparatus for Soft Materials. J. dynamic behavior mater. 9, 36–43 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40870-022-00357-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40870-022-00357-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation