Abstract
The idea of the commons is a long-standing concept referring to anything that are held in common, ranging from tangible resources to intangible cultures, as well as the institutional welfare, and it concerns both inter-generational sustainability and intra-generational equity. However, recent discussions tend to restrict the concept of the commons to the physical resources, separating intangible cultures and institutional welfare as external settings. Indeed, commonly shared natural resources, institutional public goods and cultural sentiments reinforce each other by constructing the very meaning of the commons as something shared by all. This paper explores this important subject from a philosophical and theoretical perspective; searches for the commons from its philosophical origins; and investigates the concept of the commons, respectively, in three schools: the school of tangible commons of physical resources, the school of institutional commons of welfare, security and public goods, and the school of intangible commons of culture, identity and social capital. The paper provides an integrated framework to incorporate all the commons for analysing specific case, without externalizing any as exogenous factor. Nevertheless, a study of human behaviour requires holistic understanding of people, nature and the culture under specific sociocultural settings.
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Notes
The other two are prudence and propriety.
‘No property rights’ can either mean the goods have fallen out of the legal jurisdiction, or indicating no property rights are illustrated within the legislation framework. The former is the resource commons as the open-access resource without property rights, while the latter is the property commons as the property resources without legal rights. Thus, no property rights in property commons discussion simply refers to resources without legal rights.
Sustainable development is described by the Brundtland Commission as ‘the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (United Nations 1987).
Self-governance theory was based upon the CPRs that are ‘sufficiently large as to make it costly (but not impossible) to exclude potential beneficiaries from obtaining benefits from its use’ (Ostrom 1990, p. 30).
See more discussions about the four different relationships affect the conditions of collective choice in (Oakerson 1992).
Social choice literally means choosing from exclusive alternatives of distribution of social resources. So the relation between those alternatives is neither one of preference nor one of indifference.
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Acknowledgements
This research is developed from the research project entitled ‘Governing the Commons in China’ sponsored by the Cambridge Overseas Trust. The author would like to express the deepest appreciation to Professor Peter Nolan for his invaluable comments and suggestions.
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Zhang, Y. Crossing the divide: an integrated framework of the commons. Evolut Inst Econ Rev 15, 25–48 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40844-017-0077-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40844-017-0077-2